Psychobiology Flashcards
(236 cards)
1
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Central Nervous System
A
Made up of the brain and spinal cord
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Peripheral Nervous System
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Made up of the somatic nervous system (motor neurons and sensory neurons) and the autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system)
2
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Somatic Nervous System
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Part of the peripheral nervous system responsible for conscious perception and voluntary movement
3
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Motor Neurons
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Transmit signals from the central nervous system to muscles and glands
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Sensory Neurons
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Detect stimuli from the environment and transmit the info to the central nervous system
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Autonomic Nervous System
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Part of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary physiologic processes
6
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Sympathetic Nervous System
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“Fight or flight”; part of autonomic nervous system; rapid burst of energy to respond to perceived danger (evolutionary survival mechanism for physical danger now also activated by emotional stressors)
7
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Parasympathetic Nervous System
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“Rest and digest”; relaxes the body in stress or danger; part of autonomic nervous system; calms the body down after the danger has passed; triggers the necessary responses to return to homeostasis
8
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Brain
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Coordinates sensation, perception, thinking, awareness, emotions, planning; 2% of overall weight and 20% of consumed oxygen and calories
9
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Cerebral Cortex
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“Newest”/most advanced brain structure; two hemispheres connected by corpus collosum; primary sensory areas and processes with awareness
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Limbic System
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Highly specialized neural structures at the top of the brain stem (amygdala, thalamus, hippocampus…); regulates emotions, hunger, sleep-wake
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Cerebellum
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“Small brain”; involved in movement and posture, unconsciously
12
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Brain Stem
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Top of the spine, “oldest” part of the brain, life support functions (breathing, digestion, heartbeat, all unconscious); plays a role in regulating the reward circuit and influencing reward-seeking behaviors
13
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Hemispheres
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The brain is divided into two hemispheres; each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body; right mostly responsible for visual and spatial abilities; left mostly responsible for language and logical thinking
14
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Corpus Callosum
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Bundle of neurons that allow right and left hemispheres to communicate
15
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Gyri
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The top of the folds in the brain
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Sulci
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The creases of the folds in the brain
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Superior /Dorsal
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Towards the top of the brain
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Posterior/Caudal
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Towards the back of the brain
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Inferior/Ventral
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Towards the bottom of the brain
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Anterior/Rostral
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Towards the front of the brain
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Lateral
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Away from the midline of the brain
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Medial
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Towards the midline of the brain
23
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Frontal Lobe
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Planning (self-management, decision making); reward-seeking behavior, selective attention, empathy; personality (impulse control and memory contribute to a person’s characteristics)
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Parietal Lobe
Somatosensory processing; somatosensory cortex interprets and discriminates touch sensations; receives sensory info from all over the body; role in hearing, visual perception, memory, language
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Temporal Lobe
Primary auditory cortex; Wernicke’s (comprehension) and Broca’s (production) areas; interacts with other structures of the limbic system (memory, learning, attention...)
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Occipital Lobe
Visual processing; primary visual cortex (receives info from the retina via the thalamus)
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Visual Processing
Perceiving distance, color, depth, movement and recognizing objects and faces
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Somatosensory Processing
Touch, pain, temperature, sense of limb positioning
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Planning/Reward Seeking/Personality
Functions of the frontal lobe
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Auditory Cortex
Receives info from the ears and gives them meaning
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Post-mortem Dissection
Looking at the brains of dead patients to study the brain
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Neuroimaging
Noninvasive techniques for looking at the brain to study it; both structural and functional
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Animal Models
Studying the brains of other animals because although they differ in size/structure, there are similarities
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Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
Measures changes in the level of naturally occurring oxygen in the blood to map which areas of the brain are more/less active during a task
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Electroencephalography (EEG)
Measure electrical activity at the scalp, good temporal resolution but poor spatial resolution
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Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
Injects radioactive substance into bloodstream as an indicator of metabolic activity in brain areas
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Neurons
Fundamental units of the nervous system responsible for transmitting information through electrical and chemical signals
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Grey Matter
Brain/spinal cord tissue that consists of neuronal cell bodies and unmyelinated axons; responsible for processing info and controlling various functions
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White Matter
Brain tissue composed of axons encased in myelin; primary pathway for transmitting signals between different regions of the brain and spinal cord
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Myelination
The process where myelin forms a protective layer around the axon, speeding up the transmition of nerve impulses
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Dendrites
Receive input from other neurons (via neurotransmitters)
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Cell Body/Soma
Central part of a neuron; integration point for signals from dendrites
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Axon
Transmits electrical signals (action potentials) away from the cell body of a neuron and towards other neurons
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Axon Terminals
Receive the action potential and release neurotransmitters across the synapse to other dendrites
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Synapse
The gap between neurons; when activated by an action potential, the pre-synaptic axon terminal releases neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft/gap; neurotransmitters bind to receptors of the post-synaptic dendrite
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Membrane Potential
Difference in electrical charge between the inside and the outside of a neuron; develops due to ions on inside and outside of the neuron; at rest the inside of a neuron is more negative
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Action Potential
Basis for electrical signaling within neurons; when dendrites receive input it can cause depolarization of the neuron; repeated depolarization causes neuron to reach its threshold membrane potential; channels open allowing positive sodium ions across the membrane which triggers the electrical signal (action potential) to travel down the axon; at the peak of action potential potassium channels open and potassium can leave the cell (repolarization); the neuron overshoots the resting membrane potential (hyperpolarization); action potential causes a release of neurotransmitters to signal the next neuron
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Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that transmit signals between nerve cells and other cells
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Primary Motor Cortex
In the frontal lobe; voluntary movements, each body part has a unique portion of the primary motor cortex devoted to it
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Neural Induction
Day 18-24; neural tube forms and ends close; genetically determined; neural patterning cells acquire different identities and dimensions
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Proliferation
Day 24-125; genetically determined; 250000 cells produced per minute; by day 125 fetus has all its cells; single layer of cells (ventricular zone) forms along inner surface of neural tube
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Migration
Cells migrate from bottom level towards top level to their final destinations; radial glial cells act as scaffolding to help other cells migrate
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Differentiation
Day 125 (postnatal); cells differentiate into what they will become; then a cell starts to express particular genes to make exact proteins it needs and acquires its distinctive features; transplanted immature cells take on characteristics of new area
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Synaptogenesis
Neurons grow more axons and dendrites, adding synapses
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Synaptic Rearrangement
Early on, axons reach out widely and form a diffuse patter, then adjustments are made (synapses that are active strengthen and those that are not weaken); a more focused pattern of synaptic contact is left
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Cell Death/Stabilization
Initial surge in synaptic growth levels off and declines after first year; process of cell death can sculpt/prune to bring about balance
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Genetic Determination
Concept that genes are the primary of sole determinant of an organism’s traits, behavior, and development
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Glial Cells
Non-neuronal cells in the nervous system that provide support, protection, and nourishment
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Cortical Grey Matter
Type of grey matter specifically referring to the outer layer of the cerebrum and cerebellum
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Cortical White Matter
White matter specifically found beneath the grey matter of the cerebral cortex
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Childhood
Rapid postnatal growth of cortical grey matter over first two years; slower growth of cortical white matter throughout childhood and adolescence
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Adolescence
Higher ratio of white to grey matter; decrease of synaptic connections at dendrites (synaptic connections are refined to make space for mature patterns to form); increase of axon myelination; mid 20s is functional connectivity reaches a stable state
Important phase of development that allows individuals to learn how to function relatively independently in society; characterized by impulsivity and risk-taking under certain conditions
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Synaptic Connections
Refined to make space for mature patterns to form
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Functional Connectivity
The statistical dependence or synchronization between the activity of different brain regions
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Imbalance Model of Brain Development
Reward-related subcortical regions and prefrontal cortex regions interact differently across development; motivational and emotional subcortical connections develop earlier than connections supporting prefrontal control; result is greater reliance on motivational subcortical regions than on prefrontal regions during adolescence
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Environmental Influences on Brain Development
Prenatal tobacco exposure (tobacco toxins can cross placenta barrier, dampens gene expression of fetal brain regulatory genes, long-lasting effects); prenatal maternal stress (exposed to increased cortisol, impact on functional and structural brain connectivity involving amygdala, PFC, and HPA axis); prenatal maternal depression (elevated cortisol, maternal cortisol predicts larger amygdala in 7 year old children, greater functional connectivity of the amygdala with key brain regions involved in activation and regulation of emotional states); socio-economic status (higher SES associated with prolonged structural and functional brain development leading to more efficient cortical networks in adulthood, lower SES accelerates brain maturation and aging); poverty (reduction in grey matter, explains part of the income related achievement gap); neglect (smaller frontal-occipital circumference)
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Changes with Aging
Changes to prefrontal cortex (brain structures that mature earlier in development are more robust to effects of aging compared to ones that mature later, grey matter declines 5% per decade after 20); changes to hippocampus (decreases in volume associated with decline in multiple areas of cognition)
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Retrogenesis
Idea that the brain’s deterioration happens in the reverse order of how it developed during childhood and adolescence
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Compensatory Brain Activity
Increased or additional activity in a particular brain region in older adults that accompanies their performance on a task at the same level as young adults
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HAROLD Model
Hemispheric Reduction in Older Adults model; increased bilateral recruitment of pre-frontal areas
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PASA Model
Posterior Anterior Shift in Aging model; recruitment of pre-frontal cortex in response to reduced visual cortex activation
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Bottom-Up Processing
Reflexive, environmentally triggered, emotionally driven behavior; more primitive structures (brainstem, basal ganglia, limbic system)
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Self-Control
“The ability to resist temptation and override impulsive responses to behave consistently with our long-term goals”
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Positive Life Outcomes
Self-control predicts positive life outcomes involving mental health, psychological wellbeing, decision making, interpersonal relationships
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Personal and Societal Costs
These are failures of self-control like alcohol and substance addiction, debt, poor physical health and obesity
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Top-Down Processing
Abstract, rational, goal-directed behavior; cerebral cortex, prefrontal cortex
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Pre-Frontal Cortex
Modulates subcortical areas involved in reward and emotion processing, enabling individuals to prioritize long-term goals over immediate gratification
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Cerebral Cortex
Linked to self-control and reward seeking behavior; outer layer of the cerebrum composed of folded grey matter
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Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex
Primarily involved in executive functions including working memory, planning, and decision-making
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Ventral Tegmental Area
Dopamine-rich area of mid-brain, via mesolimbic dopamine pathway
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Basal Ganglia
Has a reward system that relies on dopamine and opioid neurotransmitters; drives motivation and associative learning
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Ventral Striatum
Contains nucleus accumbens; associated with reward, reinforcement, and addiction; receives input from amygdala, hippocampus, ventral tegmental area)
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Nucleus Accumbens
Key part of the brain’s reward system; higher activation to food cues predicts stronger food desires, higher enactment of food desires, higher amount eaten
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Limbic System (Amygdala and Hypothalamus)
Brain’s center for emotions, motivation, and memory; involved in the anticipation and experience of rewards
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Self-Regulation
The ability to control one’s behavior, emotions, and thoughts, allowing individuals to manage impulses, think before acting, and pursue long-term goals effectively
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Balance Model of Self-Control
Self-control failures result from an imbalance in reward and executive control functions
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Reward and Executive Control
An imbalance of these leads to self-control failure
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Cognitive Strategy
Think about long-term consequences of repeatedly consuming the item
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Smaller-Sooner Rewards
Like choosing $7 now instead of $10 in a month; preference for smaller-sooner is associated with higher impulsivity, impatience, poorer school performance, increased substance abuse; associated with greater connectivity with limbic system
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Larger-Later Rewards
Like choosing $10 later instead of $7 now; associated with greater connectivity between cortical regions within cognitive control systems
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Impulsivity
Behavior driven by immediate urges and executed without thoughtful deliberation or appropriate regard to consequence
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rTMS
Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Simulation – Low frequency rTMS decreases excitability (reduces likelihood of neurons firing); creates a temporary lesion effect
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tDCS
Transcranial Direct Current Simulation – Electrodes positioned on the scalp over cortical regions of interest; modifies spontaneous neuronal excitability by changing neurons’ resting membrane potential; activating the left dorsolateral PFC improved accuracy of No-Go responses and increased reaction time
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Inhibition
Resisting responses that are motivated by immediate rewards
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Go/No Go
Measures inhibition; requires participant to suppress an action; emotional info present vs absent, when absent adolescents perform just as well as adults
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Risk Taking
The task was choosing whether the token is hidden in a red/blue box, the less likely option has higher reward (risky choice)
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Marshmallow Test
Test of delayed gratification; 40 years later test with adults, those who were successful in delaying gratification as children preferentially recruited the PFC as adults, those who were unsuccessful in delaying gratification as children preferentially recruited the ventral striatum as adults
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Circuitry
Could relate to adolescent risk taking rather than PFC; risk-taking relates to the VS, nucleus accumbens, and VTA
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Brain Region Interaction
Could relate to adolescent risk taking rather than PFC
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Functional Connectivity
Functional connectivity between PFC and subcortical structures does not reach a stable state until mid 20s
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Imbalance Model
Reward-related subcortical regions and prefrontal cortex regions interact differently across development; motivational and emotional subcortical connections develop earlier than connections supporting prefrontal control; result is greater reliance on motivational subcortical regions than on prefrontal regions during adolescence
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Dietary Self-Control
Thinner cortical thickness of PFC predicted lower dietary self-control; higher volume of amygdala predicted lower dietary self-control
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Social Brain Areas
Medial prefrontal cortex, amygdala, anterior cingulate cortex, inferior frontal gyrus, interparietal sulcus, temporoparietal junction, posterior superior temporal sulcus, anterior insula
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Amygdala
Hub for the social brain, with connections to other relevant cortical and subcortical regions
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Social Environment
Living in larger social groups had larger volumes in mid-superior temporal sulcus and rostral prefrontal cortex
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Mid-Superior Temporal Sulcus
A region in the brain that is involved in various social processes, such as language perception and understanding the thoughts and intentions of others
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Perception Network
Performing the sensory processes involved in detecting, decoding and interpreting social signal from others in the context of past experience and current goals; people with impaired perception of facial expression and sarcasm comprehension have structural differences
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Ventrolateral Amygdala
Receive input from sensory association areas of the temporal cortex, activated when responding to socially salient stimuli (perception network)
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Lateral Orbitofrontal Cortex
Receive input from sensory association areas of the temporal cortex, activated when responding to socially salient stimuli (perception network)
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Temporal Cortex
Sends info form sensory association areas to the ventrolateral amygdala and the lateral orbitofrontal cortex (perception network)
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Affiliation Network
Important for the processes associated with motivating prosocial or affiliative behaviors, such as comforting a loved one in distress; regions in this network respond to pictures of loved ones and positive social feedback, and motivate decisions to behave altruistically, decreased grey matter in vmPFC and ACC associated with diminished empathy and interpersonal warmth
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Medial Amygdala
Its nuclei connect to the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex and ventromedial striatum (affiliation network)
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Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex
Its nuclei connect to the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex and ventromedial striatum (affiliation network)
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Anterior Cingulate Cortex
Connects with nuclei from the medial amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (affiliation network)
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Ventromedial Striatum
Connects with nuclei from the medial amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (affiliation network)
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Aversion Network
Important for the processes enabling avoidant behaviors, such as avoiding an untrustworthy-appearing stranger; regions in this network respond to untrustworthy faces and negative feedback that elicit social aversion and motivate decisions not to cooperate; dementia patients with atrophy here are more susceptible to scams
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Rostrodorsal Amygdala
Its nuclei connect to pain-sensitive targets (aversion network)
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Caudal Anterior Cingulate Cortex
Its nuclei connect to pain-sensitive targets (aversion network)
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Pain-Sensitive Targets
Nuclei from the rostrodorsal amygdala and the caudal anterior cingulate cortex connect to them (aversion network)
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Empathy
Natural capacity to share, understand, and respond with care to the affective states of others
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Atrophy
The reduction in size or wasting away of a body part, cell, tissue, or organ
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Shared Neural Activation
Electric shock being delivered to someone's partner and activation of the person not being shocked in the AI, ACC, brainstem, and cerebellum shows higher empathy
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Likeability
Participants played a game and showed more activation for confederates who played fairly (were likeable) than those who played unfairly
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Cognitive Appraisal
Participants watched videos on biopsies and non-painful injections and showed activations of sympathy (aversive stimuli)
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Self-Other Distinction
Top-down reflective response to infer affective state of someone who perceives differently than we do (tempoparietal junction)
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Vicarious Embarrassment
Observing social norm violations; activates regions associated with empathic concern (ACC), theory of mind, and social identity; need to be able to put oneself in other person’s shoes to experience vicarious embarrassment
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Middle Temporal Gyrus
Associated with theory of mind
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Inferior Frontal Gyrus
Associated with social identity
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Altruism
A reaction to the signals and situation of another individual and involves an attempt to alleviate the other’s negative state... in the absence of any clear, immediate benefit to self; posterior vmPFC more active (concrete primary rewards, like “warm glow”)
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Altruistic Choices
Choices that have no extrinsic reward but intrinsic satisfaction; more strongly activates that subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (distinguishes altruism from decisions with benefits for the individual)
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Strategic Choices
Choice that involves an extrinsic reward; more strongly activates the nuccleus accumbens; anterior vmPFC more active (abstract secondary rewards, like money)
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Reward Circuits
Like the striatum ventral tegmental area, activated by giving and receiving likes on Instagram
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Abstract Social Thought
Adolescents’ ability to interpret and react emotionally to social information becomes more sophisticated; study where adolescents watched mini-documentaries and discussed with concrete and abstract responses
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Default Mode Network
Active when daydreaming/imagining; building meaning, making social-psychological inferences; dorsomedial PFC, ventromedial PFC, inferior/posterior posteromedial cortices
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Peer Influence and Risk Taking
Stoplight task (aim to drive to end of street in min time, risks are to run amber stop lights vs wait); adolescents made more risky decisions when driving with peers vs alone; adolescents did not recruit lPFC like adults did and peer presence heightened activity in reward circuits (ventral striatum)
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Social Exclusion
Cyberball study (playing catch with two people who are actually computers who eventually just start passing to each other); higher distress during exclusion associated with increaed activity in the insula (involved in physical pain) and the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex
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Interpersonal Competence
Higher parent-reported interpersonal competence (social skills and popularity) associated with increased subACC activity; interpersonal competence in adolescence means being more conscious of peer norms and influence
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Posterior and Anterior vmPFC
Related to making altruistic vs strategic choices; posterior more active in altruistic and anterior more in strategic
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Amygdala and Stress
Sends “distress signal” to hypothalamus in sympathetic nervous system response
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Stress
Stress is a combination of stimulus and response; a transaction between the individual and their environment
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Hypothalamus and Stress
Sends signals through autonomic nerves to adrenal glands in sympathetic nervous system response
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Adrenal Glands
Release epinephrine/adrenaline (epinephrine circulates through the body and produces a range of physiological changes) into bloodstream in sympathetic nervous system response
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Stress Response
Increased heart rate (pumping blood to muscles and organs); rapid breathing and relaxed bronchi (more oxygen); more oxygen to the brain (increased alertness); heightened senses; release of blood sugar and fats (supply energy around body)
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Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis
Hormonal system, hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing hormone, pituitary gland releases adrenocorticotropic hormone, adrenal glands release glucocorticoids (like cortisol); peak levels after 15-30 min
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Transactional Model of Stress
An interaction between the person and the environment; stress responses are evoked when there is a perceived imbalance between situational demands and personal resources; response depends on how that individual interprets a particular external stressor
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Cognitive Appraisal
Primary appraisal is like “is this stimulus harmful” and “is this a threat or a challenge”; secondary appraisal is like “is this within my coping abilities” and “how can I deal with the situation and get a positive outcome”; dynamic process of appraisal and reappraisal; tasks that were appraised as being out of one’s control and having a social-evaluative threat increased cortisol the most
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Controllability and Threat-Related Activation
Our appraisals of a stressor (controllable/uncontrollable) affect brain activation responses; participants exposed to electric shock and aversive sound either controllable or uncontrollable and threat-related regions showed lower activation when participants had control over stressor
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Primary Appraisal of Identity Threats (PAIT)
Threat vs challenge appraisal of stressors; threat positively associated with somatic symptoms and challenge negatively associated
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Physiological Impacts of Acute and Chronic Stress
Acute stress impairs prefrontal cortex function and performance of tasks that require complex, flexible thinking; acute stress enhances amygdala and hippocampal function and performance of simple, well-rehearsed tasks; working memory impaired under stress (PFC function) and classical conditioning enhanced under stress (amygdala function)
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PFC-Mediated Cognitive Functions
Areas of PFC interconnect to regulate higher-order decision making and to plan and organize for the future; PFC connections orchestrate brain activity for intelligent regulation of behavior, thought and emotion; non-stress
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‘Top-Down’ (what is the most relevant to task) to ‘Bottom-Up’ (sensory salience of the stimulus)
Amygdala function strengthens under stress; brain response pattern switches from slow, thoughtful PFC regulation to reflexive, rapid emotional responses of amygdala
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Chronic Stress
Chronic stress is repeated/prolonged exposure to stressors; chronic stress results in decreased dendrite length in the PFC in rates; chronic stress in rats resulted in increased dendrite length in the amygdala; suppresses immune function; impairs prospective memory
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Neuronal Remodeling
May lead to behavioral manifestations of enhanced emotionality under chronic stress
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Allostatic Load
Long-term effects on the body of continued exposure to stress; physiological responses to stress promote adaptation in the short term (allostasis) but contribute to pathophysiology when overused and dysregulated
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Glucocorticoids
Bind to hippocampus (critical region for prospective memory); altered hippocampal functional connectivity in chronic stress predict prospective memory performance
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Anterior Cingulate Cortex
Activated by social exclusion; higher distress from social exclusion, higher ACC activity
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Social Exclusion
Provokes a stress response; vPFC involved in top-down regulation of stress during social rejection, lower vPFC activity associated with higher perceived stress
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Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Exposure to a traumatic event followed by development of a range of symptoms: re-experiencing (flashbacks, nightmares), hyperarousal (vigilance or exaggerated startle response), avoidance behavior; state of heightened responsivity to threatening stimuli; higher PTSD symptoms, stronger activation of amygdala
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Hippocampal Volume
Hippocampal volume is lower in trauma-exposed participants with PTSD, but not in trauma-exposed participants without PTSD (suggests reduced volume is not a result of trauma); does not increase with successful treatment; likely that smaller hippocampal volume is a pre-existing condition that may make the brain more vulnerable to developing pathological stress responses
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Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone
Released by the hypothalamus; central regulator to the HPA axis; triggers the release of ACTH
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Biological Processes Regulating Sleep and Wake
Circadian rhythms and sleep-wake homeostasis
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Two-Process Model of Sleep Regulation
Process S is sleep-wake homeostasis/sleep pressure; process C is circadian rhythm (daily biological cycles, 24 hour cycle, regulated by environmental cues)
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Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
Released by the pituitary gland; is triggered by CTH and stimulates the adrenal glands to release cortisol
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Stages of Sleep
Awake, REM sleep, non-REM stage 1, non-REM stage 2, non-REM stage 3
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Polysomnography
Electroencephalography (EEG) for the brain, electrooculography (EOG) for the eyes, electromyography (EMG) for the body
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Zeitgebers
Environmental cues; day-night cycle of light exposure, eating, activity, socializing
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Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
Specialized group of hypothalamic cells; receives information about light exposure from ganglion cells in retina; activates melanin secretion by pineal gland; brain’s master circadian pacemaker, control center for sleep-wake
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Melatonin
Sleep-promoting hormone released by pineal gland at night; suppressed by light exposure; reliable marker of circadian phase; dim light melatonin onset is the time at which melatonin levels rise above threshold under dim light conditions in a laboratory
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Circadian Preference
Refers to individual differences in the timing of one’s sleep-wake cycle and overall daily activity patterns
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Social Jet Lag
Circadian preference misaligned with schedule; late/early circadian preference becomes a state of dysfunction when required to work to mismatched social time; consequences are daytime sleepiness, attention difficulties, poorer school achievement, more napping and caffeine, more injuries, more emotionally upset
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Perfect Storm Model
Late to bed, early to rise, short and ill-timed sleep; bioregulatory pressure (sleep pressure rise slowed, circadian phase delay), psychosocial pressure (bedtime autonomy, academic pressure, screen time, social networking), societal pressure (school start time)
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Adolescence and Sleep
There are changes in sleep behavior throughout adolescence like later bedtimes, later wake times on free days, decline in weekday sleep duration, weekday sleep debt and compensation on free days; short and ill-timed sleep; circadian phase delays
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Sleep Pressure
The body’s increasing urge to sleep as you stay awake, sleep pressure builds slower in adolescence (total sleep needed does not change)
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Bioregulatory Pressure
Developmental changes to both processes involved in sleep regulation; slower build of sleep pressure and delayed circadian phase leads to later sleep onset
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Psychosocial Pressure
Bedtime autonomy (parental-set bedtimes associated with earlier sleep onset and longer sleep duration); academic pressure (homework and revision may displace sleep and other activities); “screentime” and social media (concern from parents, educators, policymakers about possible negative impact
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Societal Pressure
Early school start times cut sleep short, permanent state of social jet lag
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Sleep Restriction and Cognitive Function
Restricted school night sleep and weekend recovery, attention steadily declined, and weekend catch up sleep not enough to compensate
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Psychomotor Vigilance Test
Test that was developed to evaluate objectively the ability of an individual to sustain attention and to respond in a timely fashion to salient signals or cues, usually in research settings
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Rapid Eye Movement (REM)
Important for emotional regulation
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Perceived Susceptibility
An individual’s subjective assessment of their risk or chance of developing a health problem
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Theory of Reasoned Action
Behavioral beliefs -> attitude toward the behavior -> intention -> behavior; normative beliefs -> subjective norms -> intention -> behavior; sunscreen example; thsi view does not account for how not every behavior is equally under our control, how behaviors require more than just volition/will, how behaviors require skills/resources/opportunity
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Health Belief Model
Assumes that health behavior results from desire to avoid illness and belief that a specific health behavior will prevent or cure illness; has four constructs, perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived benefits, perceived barriers
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Perceived Severity
An individual’s subjective judgement of how serious a health problem or condition is, and the potential negative consequences if left untreated or if preventative measures are not taken
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Perceived Benefits
An individual’s belief in the positive outcomes or value of a health behavior
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Perceived Barriers
An individual’s beliefs about the obstacles that could prevent them from engaging in recommended health behavior
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Social Norms
Behavior change can result from encoding information about social norms
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Subjective Norms
An individual’s perception of the social expectations to adopt a particular behavior
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Attitude
A settled way of thinking or feeling about something
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Medial Prefrontal Cortex
Activity in the mPFC can predict behavior change better than slef-reported intentions and attitudes; involved in self-referential processing and implicit valuation
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Theory of Planned Behavior
Same as TRA but plus another section; control beliefs -> perceived behavioral control -> intention -> behavior
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Perceived Behavioral Control
Overlaps with self-efficacy; influenced by past experiences and anticipated obstacles; predicts behavior
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Self-Efficacy
Believing you can do something; self-efficacy strategy to combat smoking craving reduced self-reported craving; associated with increased activation in the rostral medial prefrontal cortex and increased connectivity between mPFC and hippocampus
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Magnitude of Connectivity
Predicted self-reported self-efficacy
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Intention-Behavior Gap
Measuring TPB components can explain intentions better than behaviors
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Transtheoretical Model
A model of intentional change; stages are defined by current intention and past behavior (pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance, relapse); perceived pros and cons of changing
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Pre-Contemplation
A lack of intention to change a specific behavior in the foreseeable future (transtheoretical model)
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Contemplation
Individuals are aware of a problem and are seriously considering making a change, but haven’t yet taken concrete steps (transtheoretical model)
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Preparation
Individuals having a strong commitment to change and actively preparing to take action within the near future (transtheoretical model)
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Action
Individuals have made specific, observable changes in their behavior within the past six months (transtheoretical model)
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Maintenance
A period where individuals have sustained their new behavior change for more than six months and are focused on preventing relapse (transtheoretical model)
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Relapse
A common occurrence where individuals return to an earlier stage of change (transtheoretical model)
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Neurobiological Basis for Motivation
Identifying the neurological basis could facilitate more effective therapeutic techniques
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Stages of Change Readiness and Treatment Eagerness Scale (SOCRATES)
Ambivalence (wonder if they have a problem, contemplating change); recognition (acknowledge they have a problem, strongly desire to make changes); taking steps (taking positive actions to stop use or to prevent relapse)
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Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex
Involved in cognitive control including decisions requiring response inhibition
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Vegetative State
If repeated examinations yield no evidence of a sustained, reproducible, purposeful, or voluntary behavioral response to visual, auditory, tactile, or noxious stimuli, a diagnosis of a vegetative state is made
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Minimally Conscious State
Showing inconsistent, but reproducible evidence of awareness of themselves and their environment, in as much as they can exhibit sustained, reproducible, or voluntary behavioral responses to sensory stimulation
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Awareness
The state of being conscious or the capacity to perceive, know, or be cognizant of events; can be measured with fMRI
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Covert Cognition
Cognitive processes that are not outwardly visible or expressed through observable behavior, but may be present in the brain and detectable through neuroimaging or other physiological methods
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Supplementary Motor Area
Activated when participants were imagining playing tennis (motor imagery)
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Parahippocampal Gyrus
Activated when participants were imagining walking through their house (spatial navigation)
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Posterior Parietal Lobe
Activated when participants were imagining walking through their house (spatial navigation)
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Lateral Premotor Cortex
Activated when participants were imagining walking through their house (spatial navigation)
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Modulation
The process of adjusting or altering the intensity, expression, or experience of emotions
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Top-Down Cognitive Control
Complex tasks require aspects of top-down control like sustained attention, response selection, language comprehension, and working memory (can be used to test awareness)
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Executive Function
Cognitive skills that help individuals plan, organize, and execute goals; new test of cognitive processes (listen to words passively, count a target word) instead of behavioral expression
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Nonbehavioral Minimally Conscious State
Condition where there is evidence of awareness and responsiveness, but the individual’s behavior is limited and inconsistent
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Diagnosis of Awareness
fMRI and EEG can better detect evidence of awareness for more accurate diagnoses and less misdiagnoses for VS and MCS
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Decision-Making
There is a standard assessment for locked-in syndrome (eye movement preserved) to answer yes/no questions; similar approach can be used with neuroimaging tools in non-responsive patients to involve them in their care
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Neuroimaging
May increase opportunities for communication in behaviorally non-responsive patients with covert awareness, potentially allowing them to participate in quality-of-life decisions
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Quality of Life
An individual’s subjective assessment of their overall well-being, encompassing physical, psychological, and social aspects of their lives
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Risk-Taking
Temporal gap in adolescence is a period of heightened sensitivity to risk taking
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Dual-Systems Model
Socioemotional vs control systems; rapid increase in dopaminergic activity during puberty and structural development (prefrontal cortex and its connection to socioemotional areas unfolds more slowly)
200
Peer Influence
In stoplight task, adolescents made riskier choices when driving with their peers; peer presence heightened activity in reward circuits
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Emotional Influence
Go/no go task (requires participants to suppress an action); when no emotional information is present adolescents perform just as well as adults, when it is present adolescents make more false alarms to positive social cues
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Criminal Responsibility
Are adolescents fully responsible for their criminal behavior; if they have diminished responsibility they should not be punished as severely as someone who does not
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Diminished Responsibility
Factor must be outside of a person’s control (brain regions that regulate impulse control and resistance to peer pressure are still developing, this is outside of individuals’ control)
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Developmental Neuroscience
When are brains mature (boundaries between adolescence and adulthood); structural development continues into 20s and 30s, subcortical and occipital regions reach a stable state earlier, the prefrontal cortex shows particularly late structural development; no single answer; adolescents mature intellectually before they mature socially
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Roper v. Simmons
US Supreme Court discussed developmental neuroscience in oral arguments; case abolished juvenile death penalty; APA submitted brief arguing that adolescents are not as mature as adults (APA previously argued the adolescents can make decisions about abortion without adults because their decision-making is as competent as adults); mature enough for some decisions, the exterior factors encouraging risky decisions
205
Animal Research
In the UK 2.9 million procedures involving animals, mostly rats, mice, and fish; some people think it should never be allowed, other only for medical research if there is no alternative
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BPS Code of Ethics and Conduct
Covers humans and animals
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Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986
Regulates any procedure that may cause pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm; requires a license; only granted after weighing the benefits of the research against the harms to the animals; requires use of the minimum number of animals
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BPS Guidelines for Working with Animals
Obligation to avoid or at least minimize discomfort to living animals
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Replacement
Replace the use of animals; BPS encourages publishing open data to allow secondary analysis
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Reduction
Reduce the number of animals used; use the minimum number of animals needed for research goals (appropriate pilot studies, reliable measures of behavior, good experimental design, appropriate use of statistical tests)
210
Refinement
Refine the use of animals; the investigator should consider experimental designs that avoid the use of regulated procedures by, for example, enriching rather than impoverishing the environment as the experimental treatment
