Psychology 3 Flashcards
(142 cards)
Behavioral Genetics
Genetically-based Behavior Variation in Natural Populations
- Do the following hypothetical findings, if true, most support a genetic influence on behavior (nature), or an environmental influence on behavior (nurture)? Why?
1. Bipolar Disorder is more likely among individuals who have a sibling who has been diagnosed with Bipolar Disorder
2. Adopted children who exhibit aggressive behavior are more likely to have a biological parent who also exhibits aggressive behaviors than they are to have an adoptive parent who exhibits aggressive behaviors
3. The concordance rate for alcoholism among MZ twins raised together is higher than the concordance rate for MZ twins raised apart
4. MZ twins raised together have more similar IQs than do DZ twins raised together
5. Strain X of MZ twin rats had a hereditary disposition toward obesity, while Strain Y did not- Both strains were divided into groups and fed either a below-average amount of food, or an above-average amount of food
- The amount of food fed to the rats was a effective predictor of life span than was Strain X or Y
- Arguments could be made for both nature and nurture
- Given the genetic relatedness among siblings, one could argue that there is a strong genetic component involved in bipolar disorder
- However, given that most siblings are raised in the same family environments, there could be key shared experiences in that context that increase the likelihood of being diagnosed with bipolar disorder.
- This would support a nature argument
- If aggression levels are more similar to biological relatives compared to adopted relatives, then this would suggest a genetic underpinning.
- This would support a nurture argument
- MZ twins are genetically identical
- therefore, one would argue that differences in alcoholism could be attributed to different environmental contexts in which these individuals are raised
- MZ twins are genetically identical
- This would support a nature argument
- Given that both sets of twins are raised in similar environments, one would assume that the higher concordance of IQs among MZ twins would be attributable to genetics.
- This would support a nurture argument
- Amount of food available was more predictive than genetic predisposition to obesity
Behavioral Genetics
-
Genetically-based Behavior Variation in Natural Populations
- …provide evidence for the influence of genetics on behavior
Describe the following 3 observations and how they show the influence of genetics on behavior
- Species-Specific Behaviors
- Animal Breeding
- Familial Concordance
-
Species-Specific Behaviors
- Behavior observed only among members of the same species
-
Animal Breeding
- Animals can be bred to exhibit target behaviors, such as:
- Aggression being genetically-selected for in rodeo bulls
- Hunting skills being genetically-selected for in certain dog breeds
- Animals can be bred to exhibit target behaviors, such as:
-
Familial Concordance
- Behaviors shown to run in families
OR
- be more frequent among children of parents with that behavioral trait
Behavioral Genetics
- Behavior and Natural Selection:
Describe:
- Innate Behavior
- Learned Behavior
- Adaptive Value
- Traits with high adaptive value are more likely to…?
- Why?
- Traits with high adaptive value are more likely to…?
- What is “Adaptive Evolution,” and what 2 things can it occur with?
Innate Behavior
- Behavior thought to be predominantly genetic and present regardless of environmental influences
Learned Behavior
- Behaviors thought to be predominantly environmental (i.e., learned via experience), and independent of heredity
Adaptive Value
- The degree to which a behavior INCREASES EVOLUTIONARY FITNESS
- Traits with high adaptive value are more likely to be represented in future generations
- Because natural selection favors the most fit individuals and behaviors, these behaviors will eventually result in a change in the gene pool—
- an increase in the more adaptive trait
- Because natural selection favors the most fit individuals and behaviors, these behaviors will eventually result in a change in the gene pool—
- Traits with high adaptive value are more likely to be represented in future generations
This is adaptive evolution and it can occur with:
- both physical traits
- e.g., Darwin’s Finches and beak structure
- …and behavioral traits
- e.g., Different dog breeds bred for different behaviors
Behavioral Genetics
- Nature vs. Nurture Study Methods
- For the following twin study experimental design types, identify the dependent variable, independent variable, any obvious study limitations, and—if present—the control:
- Family Studies
- Adoption Studies
- Twin Study
- MZ vs. DZ, both raised together
- Twin Study
- MZ and MZ, raised together vs. apart
- For the following twin study experimental design types, identify the dependent variable, independent variable, any obvious study limitations, and—if present—the control:
Family Studies
Dependent variable:
- rates of neurodegenerative disease
“Independent” variable:
- degree of relatedness
- this is not a true independent variable
- because it cannot be actively manipulated
- ∴ this research is correlational in nature (and has all the inherent problems of correlational research)
- because it cannot be actively manipulated
- this is not a true independent variable
This is usually referred to as a quasi-independent variable
Think “Quasimodo”= DEFORMED
- Family studies are limited –
-
because families in which the disease occurs will be selectively recruited
- which makes sample representativeness problematic
- “Sampling Bias”
-
because families in which the disease occurs will be selectively recruited
Adoption Studies
- Dependent variable:
- IQ
-
Quasi-independent variable:
- adopted vs. biological
- These types of studies are difficult to do because:
- there is a relatively small population to select from
- Difficulty in attaining information about biological relatives of adopted individuals
Twin Study
MZ vs. DZ, both raised together
- Dependent variable:
- aggression level
-
Quasi-independent variable:
- degree of relatedness (MZ vs. DZ twin)
- Potential limitations lie again in generalizability
Twin Study
MZ and MZ, raised together vs. apart
- Dependent variable:
- obesity
-
Quasi-independent variable:
- reared together or apart
- These studies are difficult because access to these populations is very limited
Behavioral Genetics
- Nature vs. Nurture Study Methods
- Suppose you are asked to design a study to investigate the degree to which Behavior X is HERITABLE
- also–what does “heritability” refer to?
- Rank the studies outlined above (Family, Adoption, Twin) according to their increasing ability to produce accurate results WITHOUT confounding variables
- Discuss the individual limitations of each study for this purpose
- Suppose you are asked to design a study to investigate the degree to which Behavior X is HERITABLE
“Heritability” refers to the percentage (%) of trait variability that is attributable to GENES
Twin studies
- involving DZ twins raised together compared to MZ twins raised together
- would be one of the BEST TOOLS AVAILABLE to estimate a given trait’s heritability–
- because it is generally assumed that the shared environments would be so similar as to be inconsequential to contributing to trait variability
- ∴ less confounding variables
- because it is generally assumed that the shared environments would be so similar as to be inconsequential to contributing to trait variability
- would be one of the BEST TOOLS AVAILABLE to estimate a given trait’s heritability–
Family studies
- Would be another way to get at this question
- However, as one moves outside of one’s immediate family, larger variations would be expected
- …in terms of environmental factors
Adoption studies
- Are also potential tools provided that:
- information is available about the trait of interest from the biological parents
- If the adopted child is more similar to biological parents than to the adopted parents
- then one could argue that there was substantial heritability for that trait
Behavioral Genetics
- Regulatory Genes and Behavior
- Describe how the example below shows how Regulatory Genes influence behavior
Same Genes, Different Environment
Environment ⇒Covalent Modification of the DNA⇒Dramatically Different Physiology
Evidence exists for cases where the gene (i.e., DNA structure) itself is covalently altered by the environment
One study showed that increased licking behavior by a mother rat resulted in methylation of a segment of DNA (preventing transcription) that codes for a regulatory protein which upregulates transcription of a membrane receptor
LICKING=A WAY RAT COPED WITH STRESS
This direct change in physiology persisted into adulthood
Amazingly, the methylation occurred within one week and could be reversed if the mother’s licking behavior was reversed
- In this case, a certain gene influenced an individual’s ability to cope with stress
- However, it wasn’t this “stress coping” gene that was regulated–
- It was the regulator OF the “stress coping” gene that was “turned off”–
- via methylation of the DNA sequence (gene) coding for the regulator
- It was the regulator OF the “stress coping” gene that was “turned off”–
Under normal conditions, the regulator promotes transcription (and therefore translation) of a glucocorticoid membrane receptor
**By preventing the synthesis of the promoter**, thebehavior of the mothereffectivelyALTEREDthegenetically-determined behavior of the child (i.e., the child’s ability to cope with stress).
The ENTIRE CNS=___+___
=BRAIN + SPINAL CORD
Behavioral Genetics
Nature vs. Nurture Study Methods
- Describe Twin Studies
- Also, differentiate b/t the 2 types:
- Dizygotic Twins (“DZ”) aka?
- Monozygotic Twins (“MZ”) aka?
- Also, differentiate b/t the 2 types:
Twin Studies
- Compare concordance rates between monozygotic (MZ) twins raised in the same family to dizygotic (DZ) twins raised in the bfamily
OR
- Compare concordance rates for monozygotic twins raised in the same family to those raised apart
Monozygotic Twins
a.k.a., “Identical Twins”
- Genetic influence is CONTROLLED
- Studies examine twins raised in different homes–
- so that environmental influence is VARIABLE
Dizygotic Twins
a.k.a., “Fraternal Twins” or NON-identical
- Genetic influence is VARIABLE
- Studies examine twins in the same home–
- so that environmental influence is CONTROLLED
Personality
- Other (aka Non-Freud or Jung) Personality Types:
Describe the most basic components of the personality theories of ALFRED ADLER
- Creative Self
- Style of life
- Fictional Finalism
- Inferiority Complex

Alfred Adler (A Neo-Freudian)
- Adler espoused a much more OPTIMISTIC view of human nature than did Freud
As such, Adler believed that all human behavior was guided through a process of self-improvement and success
- and that each individual’s personality was forged through his/her choices
- …and was often motivated by feelings of inferiority that each of us experiences in some aspect of our lives
- This is known as the concept of “Creative Self”
-
…and it helps to forge a person’s “Style of Life”,
- or “unconscious patterns of behavior in dealing with all aspects of life”
-
…and it helps to forge a person’s “Style of Life”,
- Adler believed that Freud’s focus on childhood experiences and their role in establishing adult personality represented “Fictional finalism”
- …because this approach ignores the active role that individuals play in determining their own personalities
- Individuals who fail to use their feelings of inferiority as motivation for self-improvement may experience an inferiority complex–
- by which they feel entirely overwhelmed and powerless as a result of their shortcomings
Theories of Personality
- Humanistic Personality Theories
Describe Max Wertheimer’s “Gestalt Therapy”

MAX WERTHEIMER: Gestalt Therapy
- A humanist approach to therapy emphasizing the treatment of the individual as a whole
- Rather than* reducing the person to a sum of their individual behaviors, drives, or neuroses
Personality Theories
- Humanistic Personality Theories
Describe Carl Rogers’ “Client-Centered Therapy” (CCT)

CARL ROGERS: Client-Centered Therapy (CCT)
- One of the most widely-used psychotherapeutic approaches
- In CCT, therapists should NOT direct the therapy or offer solutions
THE CLIENT DIRECTS THE DISCUSSION
- Further, the therapist must always be:
- empathetic,
- genuine and
- show unconditional positive regard for the client
…REGARDLESS of circumstance
- Finally, Rogers emphasized calling the recipient a “client” rather than a “patient”
- to avoid the concept that they are “sick” and need help
- –which he viewed as judgmental
- to avoid the concept that they are “sick” and need help
Theories of Personality
- Humanistic Personality Theories
Describe George Kelly’s “Personal Construct Theory”

GEORGE KELLY: Personal Construct Theory
- Personality is composed of the various mental constructs
- –through which each person views reality
Theories of Personality
- Describe (in general):
Humanistic Personality Theories
- What do they say Personality consist of?
- What is Fundamental to “Humanism?”
Humanistic Personality Theories
- Personality consists of the conscious feelings we have for ourselves
- …as we strive to reach our individual needs and goals (i.e., self-actualization)
Fundamental to humanism is the idea that people are inherently good
Personality
- Other (aka Non-Freud or Jung) Personality Types:
Describe the most basic components of the personality theories of KAREN HORNEY
- Neurotic Needs
- Basic Anxiety
- Basic Hostility

Karen Horney
- was another Neo-Freudian who parted with Freud’s views on a number of counts
- For one, Horney refused to accept that sexual and aggressive urges were the key factors in determining someone’s personality
- She also rejected the emphasis that Freud and his follower’s placed on the male sex organ (she was a DICK HATER)
- As such, she took a much more humanistic view of personality
One of Horney’s major contributions to psychology involved her theory of Neurosis
(Basic) HOSTILITY⇒ (Basic) ANXIETY⇒ NEUROSIS, and its accompanying “NEUTORIC NEEDS” (to cope w/ anxiety)
- According to Horney, neurosis results from basic anxiety which results from troubles in personal relationships that stem from childhood
- If a child perceives that they did not have their needs met by their parents, then they would experience basic hostility towards them
- This hostility would serve as one source of the basic anxiety that they feel in other relationships
- As people try to cope with this anxiety, they may fall into a rut in terms of their coping mechanisms of choice which could be construed as a series of neurotic needs
- (e.g. the need for approval, the need for power).
Theories of Personality
-
Describe (in general) Trait Personality Theories
- How do these theories differ from Psychoanalytic or Humanistic perspectives?
TRAIT Personality Theories:
- Personality= Σ of Traits
- broad, relatively-stable characteristics or dispositions
- These theories are focused on unique DIFFERENCES between individuals–
- whereas Psychoanalytic or Humanistic perspectives focus more on commonalities among all people
- e.g., common needs, common neuroses
- whereas Psychoanalytic or Humanistic perspectives focus more on commonalities among all people
Psychological Disorders
- PSYCHOLOGIAL DISORDERS REVIEW:
Identify the psychological disorder that is most likely to be diagnosed given the following symptoms:
- Alternating periods of high energy/impulsive behavior and depression
- Hearing voices that urge the individual to hurt himself,
- Significant periods of memory loss for events that others claim the individual was present for but they also indicate that he was behaving oddly
- Persistent thoughts that harm would befall his parents if he failed to take a flight of stairs two stairs at a time
- Avoiding situations in which social interaction would occur because of an intense feeling of social inferiority
- An intense need to be the center of attention at all times
- Significant issues with maintaining balance and pronounced tremors
- Bipolar disorder
- Schizophrenia
- Dissociative identity disorder
- Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
- Avoidant personality disorder
- Histrionic personality disorder
- Parkinson’s disease
Psychological Disorders
- Personality Disorders
- Describe (in general) characteristics of the disorders in Cluster A
- What are the 3 disorders in Cluster A?
Cluster A
- Notice that all disorders in this cluster have a very common general description pertaining to either DISRUPTIVE or DISTORTED patterns of thought, behavior, and functioning
- Paranoid Personality Disorder
- Schizotypal Personality Disorder
- Schizoid Personality Disorder
Psychological Disorders
- Dissociative Disorders
Describe the basic diagnostic symptoms of:
- Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)
- Dissociative Amnesia
…according to DSM-5
The DSM-5 lists the following as diagnostic criteria for Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID):
THINK: Me, Myself, & Irene
- Disruption of identity with 2 or more DISTINCT personalities, as:
- Observed by others or
- As reported by the patient
- Recurrent periods of AMNESIA for both:
- Everyday events and
- Important personal experiences
- These disturbances fall outside of:
- cultural/religious practices
- imaginary play of children
- The disturbances have caused significant impairment in the individual’s:
- occupational or social functioning
- The disturbance is not due to drug use or some other medical condition

Psychological Disorders
- Personality Disorders
Cluster B
- Describe:
- Histrionic Personality Disorder
- Narcissistic Personality Disorder
What are they 1) Characterized by, and 2) Accompanied by?
Histrionic Personality Disorder
THINK: Robin Grigg’s behavior in Taiwan
- Characterized by:
- excessive but shallow emotions
- attention-seeking
- manipulative behavior
- May be accompanied by:
- fleeting moods, opinions or beliefs
- excessive suggestibility
- a desire for others to witness their emotional outbursts
- exaggeration of symptoms
- threats of suicide
…as a form of MANIPULATION
Narcissistic Personality Disorder
THINK: Kanye West
- Characterized by:
- an excessive sense of self- importance
- an extreme preoccupation with oneself
- and a lack of empathy for others
- May be accompanied by:
- A constant need for
- attention
- affirmation
- praise
- A belief that one is “special” and should ONLY associate with others of the same caliber
- Fantasies about success and power
- A sense of entitlement
- Expectations of special treatment
- A constant need for
EX: A man’s mother died on a Thursday and on Saturday his wife had the annual picnic for her office. She demanded that her husband and children go to the picnic in spite of their grief and act happy and not talk about Grandma dying in order to make a good impression on her coworkers (make HER look good. Doesnt give a crap about her family)
Psychological Disorders
- Personality Disorders
Cluster C
-
Describe:
- Avoidant Personality Disorder
- Dependent Personality Disorder
Avoidant Personality Disorder
THINK: Socially anxious Redditor
- Characterized by:
- extreme shyness
- sensitivity to criticism and rejection
- low self-esteem,
-
avoidance of social situations—
- including school or work
- Individuals may desire closeness with others, but have difficulty forming relationships outside of their immediate family
Dependent Personality Disorder
THINK: Kaila Bravo from high school
- Characterized by:
- a chronic, pervasive pattern of dependent, submissive, and NEEDY behavior
- Individuals may seek excessive:
- approval
- advice, or
- encouragement
- May include:
- sensitivity to criticism or rejection
- low self-esteem
- low self-confidence
- an inability to make decision without others
- feelings of helplessness
- extreme devastation when close relationships end—
- with the need to IMMEDIATELY begin a new relationship
Psychological Disorders
- Personality Disorders
Cluster C
- Define Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD)
- Differentiate between OCPD and OCD
Obsessive-Compulsive PERSONALITY Disorder (OCPD)
- Characterized by a chronic and significant preoccupation with perfection, control and order
- May include rigid behaviors, resistance to change, inflexibility, stubbornness, and a sense of helplessness in uncontrollable circumstances
Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and obsessive compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) are two distinct diagnoses
- OCD involves obsessions that generate anxiety and compulsive behaviors that are engaged in an attempt to alleviate anxiety
- These thoughts and behaviors are generally UNWELCOME
- The experience of an individual with OCPD is quite different in that they tend to be preoccupied with rules, regulation, and organization
- They tend to DEMAND PERFECTION in all of their endeavors and are quite inflexible in their patterns of thoughts and in the way that they approach new problems
Unlike someone diagnosed with OCD, the OCPD individual views their perspective as an EFFICIENT (“GOOD”) way to deal with the challenges of life and are MUCH LESS LIKELY to seek professional help to address these issues
Psychological Disorders
- Anxiety Disorders
Compare Specific Phobia with Agoraphobia
Specific Phobia
THINK: “OMG I’m afraid of _spiders_!!!!!”
- An irrational and excessive fear of:
- an object or situation
- May be accompanied by:
- dizziness
- nausea
- difficulty breathing
- a sense of unreality
- a fear of dying
- In extreme cases, it can induce…..
- a FULL-SCALE ANXIETY ATTACK!!!!!
Agoraphobia
THINK: “I’m afraid of _crowds”_
- A persistent fear of any place or circumstance
- …from which escape might be difficult
- Individuals are usually fearful of being:
- outside of their homes
- traveling in a car
- in a crowd, or
- in public spaces
- May be accompanied by:
- depressed mood
- anxiousness
- fearful behaviors, or
- panic attacks

Psychological Disorders
- Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders
- Describe PTSD
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
- A stressor-induced disorder developed after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event such as:
- a natural disaster
- violent crime, or
- war
- May include:
- hyper-vigilance
- reliving the event
- anxiety
- avoidance
Psychological Disorders
- Understanding Psychological Disorders:
- Name the 2 approaches to categorizing and understanding psychological disorders
- Biomedical Approach
- Biopsychosocial Approach






















































