Psychology Unit 2 Flashcards
(191 cards)
1
Q
How can we assess the motor development of an infant?
A
refers to changes in physical movement and body control
2
Q
How are senses developed at birth?
A
hearing is almost fully developed at birth, vision in newborns is about 20-600 vision and by 12 months the vision is almost 20-20, color vision takes 3 to 6 months to develop
3
Q
Chronologically, how do motor skills develop in babies?
A
1st they look at their mother with an unfocused gaze then they turn their head, 2 month - babies lying on stomach can lift their head, 3 months - make a grab for something, 4 months - hold objects, 6 months - sit on their own, 7 months - pull themselves up and hold on to furniture, 8-9 months walk by holding on to furniture, 1st year - first steps
4
Q
What is the process of pruning? What disorders may result from problems with neural pruning?
A
degradation of synapses and dying off of neurons that are not strengthened by experience, problems with pruning may result in autism and schizophrenia
5
Q
What are Piaget’s stages of cognitive development?
A
Sensorimotor (0-2 years) - knowledge is through sense, object permanence develops between 4 and 9 months
Preoperational (2-5 years) - verbal and egocentric thinking develop, can do mentally what once could do only physically, conservation of shape, number, liquid not yet possible (ANIMISTIC THINKING, EGOCENTRISM), theory of mind develops around age 4
Concrete operational (6-11 years) - conservation of shape, number, liquid are now possible, logic and reasoning develop, but are limited to appearance what is concretely observed
Formal operations (12 and up) - abstract reasoning - principles and ideas develop, systematic problem-solving is now possible, ability to think about and reflect upon one’s thinking (metacognition), scientific reasoning
6
Q
What is object permanence, animistic thinking and Egocentrism?
A
Object permanence - the ability to realize that objects still exist when they are not being sensed, Egocentrism - tendency to view the world from one’s own perspective, Animistic thinking - perceiving objects or abstract ideas a possessing living characteristics
7
Q
What is the entrance into Piaget’s preoperational stage of development is marked by?
A
Emergence of symbolic thought
8
Q
What is the “Heinz Dilemma” developed by Kohlberg? What does it assess?
A
gives participants a moral dilemma and assessing the moral reasoning behind their actions, he believed moral reasoning moves from being focused on the self to being increasingly focused on others with a basis in clear personal principles of morality and ethics
9
Q
Describe the preconventional, conventional, and postconventional stages of Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning? How do they differ from each other?
A
Pre-conventional - to avoid punishment, judgements are based on personal needs (first and least developed), focused on self
Conventional - rules are rules and they are not to be broken, judgements are based on needs of society; individual needs serve group needs, focused on others
Post-conventional - willing to break law - and suffer the consequences - if it is perceived as unjust or immoral, judgements balance needs of society with personal convictions, focused on society as a whole
10
Q
What is the strange situation procedure (experiment)? What are the different attachment styles that this procedure can differentiate?
A
20 minute laboratory session that creates a mildly stressful situation for the baby to assess the extent to which the caregiver is a safe haven when the infant is distresses and a “secure base” from which to explore, differentiates from different attachment styles:
Securely attached: infant will gradually explore new situations when the caregiver leaves and initiate contact when the caregiver returns after separation (50-60%)
Insecure avoidant - little to no distress in separation episodes, even though the infant is under stress, when caregiver returns the infant tends to ignore and avoid her (15%)
Insecure resistant - cannot be comforted by caregiver on reunion and shows difficult in returning to play, reflects infant’s lack of confidence in being comforted (10%)
Insecure disorganized/disoriented - approach caregiver on reunion but with heads averted, might freeze in place in caregiver’s presence, infants are frightened, more likely to be a result of maltreatment, most insecure (5%)
11
Q
According to the book what is the primary problem of adolescence?
A
boys and girls’ bodies are ready for parenthood earlier than the mind is
12
Q
In the context of brain development in humans, what is taking place in the brain during adolescence?
A
begin to think abstractly and may show the ability to engage in scientific reasoning and hypothesis test, increasing neural complexity and size of frontal lobes
13
Q
Describe the four emerging identity issues of an emerging adult (career, sexual, gender, and ethnic)
A
sexual orientation (who you’re attracted to), gender identity (who you identify as), career (how they will spend their time, what are their life goals, and what will they offer the world), and ethnic (ie being biracial)
14
Q
How does Erickson describe generativity and stagnation?
A
generativity (creation of new ideas, products, or people) vs stagnation (more self-focused than oriented toward others and does not contribute in a productive way to society or family)
15
Q
What do we know about fluid and crystallized intelligence in late adulthood?
A
fluid intelligence (raw mental ability, pattern recognition, and abstract reasoning that can be applied to a problem one has never confronted before), crystallized intelligence (knowledge that one gains from experience and learning, education, and practice)
16
Q
How can we reduce cognitive decline with aging?
A
exercising
17
Q
What are the cognitive benefits of aging?
A
wisdom (ability to know what matters, to live well, and to show good judgment)
18
Q
What is dementia? What’s the role of Alzheimer’s disease in dementia?
A
Dementia - unusual degree of loss in cognitive functions and includes memory problems and difficulty in reasoning, solving problems, making decisions, and using language, Alzheimer’s is a degenerative disease marked by progressive cognitive decline and accounts for 60-70% of dementia among the elderly
19
Q
In the context of Erik Erikson’s theory of personality development, how is integrity defined?
A
feeling of being whole or integrated
20
Q
According to Elizabeth Kübler-Ross, what are the stages people may move through after learning they are going to die?
A
denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance
21
Q
Define extinction and spontaneous recovery. When do they occur?
A
Extinction - weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response in the absence of reinforcement, Spontaneous recovery - sudden reappearance of an extinguished response, occurs during classical conditioning
22
Q
What is the difference between positive and negative punishment?
A
Positive punishment - addition of a stimulus that decreases behavior (ie spanking a child (adding stimulus) because it decreases undesirable behavior
Negative punishment - removal of a stimulus to decrease behavior (ie revoking a child’s TV watching privileges for repeatedly hitting a sibling)
23
Q
What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement? When do they occur?
A
Positive reinforcement - the presentation or addition of a stimulus after a behavior occurs that increases how often that behavior will occur (ie getting extra credit point for turning in homework on time)
Negative reinforcement - removal of a stimulus after a behavior to increase the frequency of that behavior (ie the removal of the annoying beeping is negative reinforcement to fasten the seat belt)
24
Q
What is the difference between forward and backward conditioning?
A
Forward condition - neutral stimulus being presented just before the unconditioned stimulus
Backward conditioning - neutral stimulus follows the unconditioned stimulus
25
What is stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination?
Stimulus generalization - extension of the association between unconditioned response and the conditioned stimulus to a broad array of similar stimuli
Stimulus discrimination - conditioned response occurs only to exactly the stimulus to which it was conditioned
26
What are the applications of operant conditioning discussed in the book?
phobias, nicotine addiction, and learning disabilities, reduce self-harming behaviors in adults with intellectual deficiencies and in suicidal teens with borderline personality disorder, treatment of autism!!
27
What is shaping?
the reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired behavior
28
Define the following schedules of reinforcement: fixed ratio (FR), variable-ratio (VR), fixed-interval (FI), variable-interval (VI).
Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule - pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which reinforcement follows a set number of responses (ie worker paid according to number of units they produce whether its pajama sets or pizzas delivered, workers whose wages depend on number of units they produce will work faster to make more money)
Variable-ratio (VR) Schedule - pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which the number of responses needed for reinforcement changes (ie a slot machine, player will not know how many pulls of slot machine are needed to win and will change from occasion to occasion)
Fixed-interval (FI) schedule - pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which the responses are always reinforced after a set period of time has passed, produces scalloped pattern (ie studying behavior before and after tests, we would expect to see a drop in rate of studying time immediately following a test because students know they won’t be tested for a while)
Variable-interval (VI) schedule - pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which responses are reinforced after time periods of different durations have passed, produce steady, moderate rates of response (ie trying to get a hold of someone already on the phone, keep calling every few minutes to see if they are off, eventually they will pick up the phone but wait time is unpredictable)
29
How does taste aversion work?
the learned avoidance of a particular taste or food:
The doughnut (the CS) acquired the ability to induce nausea (CR) after a brief parting with the motion of the boat (UCS).
The CS and UCS can be separated by 75 minutes and still leaded to conditioned taste aversion
30
What is modeling?
imitation of behaviors performed by others, a kind of observational learning
31
What is latent learning?
learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement and is not demonstrated until later, when reinforcement occurs
32
What is the “law of effect” formulated by Thorndike?
the reward of success is “stamped in” stimulus-response associations, while punishments or other negative consequences stamped them out
33
What are the three basic variables of operant conditioning?
Behavior - (ie level pressing), Consequence - (ie food pellet), Discriminative stimulus - signals that the behavior and reinforcement contingency is in effect (the sight of the bar, the context of the box, etc.)
34
What are the four factors that influence the process of reinforcement?
Schedule of reinforcement - continuous reinforcers - consequences that are always paired with the occurrence of the behavior
Availability of reinforcers - presence or absence of alternative reinforcers in the environment influences the likelihood of any stimulus becoming established as a reinforcer
Extinction process - reinforcer/reward no longer occurs after the occurrence of a behavioral response (neither a positive or negative condition exists)
Individual differences - individuals differ in their sensitivity to various reinforcers/rewards, some individuals have initially positive responses to drugs or alcohol while others find these substances aversive
35
How is dopamine involved in positive reinforcement?
electrical stimulation of certain brain sites is positively rewarding, the electrical current stimulates a descending pathway from the prefrontal cortex to the VTA
36
How do eating disorders parallel substance abuse?
intake of large quantities of food and drugs appear to be reciprocally related because binge eating may increase during abstinence of alcohol, strong linkage between deprivation of one reinforcer (food) and intake of other reinforcers - decreased use of a potent reinforcer appears to make control over other reinforcers more difficult
37
What is development psychology?
studies the systematic changes that occur during the lifespan
38
What are the basic tasks of infancy?
getting the sustenance they need
- sucking reflex - rhythmic sucking in response to stimulation of the tongue or mouth
- rooting reflex- reflexive turning of the newborn’s head in the direction of a touch on its cheek
Defend against harmful stimulation
Make social contact
39
WHat is the primary drive theory?
attachment results from associating the satisfaction of primary drives with the being who satisfies them
40
What is the primary function of nursing?
ensure frequent and intimate body contact of the infant with the mother
41
What is the attachment behavioral system?
set of behaviors and reaction that helps ensure the developing child’s survival by keeping the child in close physical contact with caregivers: We pay attention to our own internal states,
We keep track of our caregiver’s availability and responsiveness,
We look out for potential threats in the environment
42
WHat is felt security?
sense of safety and protection that allows the developing child to explore the world and take risks
43
What are working models?
internal psychological structures representing the conscious and unconscious beliefs, expectations, and feelings, people have about themselves, about others, and about relationships
44
What do working models do?
influences how experiences in relationships are selected, in interpreted and integrated into our sense of who we are, adults relationships differ along 2 main relationships dimensions:
Anxiety - views about self correspond to levels of anxiety about relationships
Avoidance - views about attachments figures correspond to tendency to avoid relationships all together (ie not sure if you should go all in or be careful)
45
What are the different main relationships of adults?
Secure - low avoidance and low anxiety - comfortable with intimacy and autonomy
Preoccupied - low avoidance and high anxiety - preoccupied with relationships
Dismissing - low anxiety and high avoidance - dismissing of intimacy counter-dependent
Fearful - high anxiety and high avoidant - fearful of intimacy
46
What are psychological mechanisms?
preferences and tendencies, capacities, responses, and strategies that characterize humans
47
What is parental sensitivity?
caregiving behavior that involves the expression of warmth and contingent responsiveness to children, such as when they require assistance or are in distress
48
What is learning?
a change in behavior, or the potential for future behavior, as a result of experience
Allows us to: 1)anticipate future from past experiences 2)control our environment
Any stimulus an organism can perceive is capable of eliciting any reaction the organisms is capable of making (ie cat makes you happy and jump scare love video)
49
What is a reflex?
a simple and automatic response to a single stimulus (ie knee jerk response, eye dilation)
Fear
Blinking of the eyes
Shivering
Salivate
Sucking
50
What are fixed action patterns?
an inherited set of actions in response to a particular stimulus
Salmons annual upstream journey to spawning grounds
Not common in humans if there are any, mainly in animals
51
What is classical conditioning?
the process by which an organism learns a new association between 2 paired stimuli - a neutral stimulus and one that already evokes a reflexive response, certain stimuli can automatically trigger a reflexive response (ie running from a mad bear or being scared of nurses as a kid)
52
What are the components of classical conditioning?
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - s stimulus that automatically elicits an unconditioned response (food in mouth of a dog, or scary bear)
Unconditioned response (UCR) - an automatic response to a unconditioned stimulus (salivation of the dog, fear of the bear)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)- stimulus that comes to evoke a particular response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus (tone rang)
Conditioned response (CR) - whatever response the conditioned stimulus begins to elicit as a result of the conditioning procedure
53
What is Piaget’s view of how children think?
childhood brain is not a miniature brain of an adult, children reason differently and have to develop their brains and build up knowledge
54
According to Piaget, what are schemas? How do assimilation and accommodation relate to schemas?
Schemas - concepts or mental molds into which we pour our experiences
Assimilation - child interprets new experiences into things they already knows
Accommodation - child makes distinctions between schemas
55
What are the different developmental stages proposed by Piaget? How do they differ from each other?
Sensorimotor - birth to age 2, babies take in the world through senses and actions, object permanence - awareness that things continue to exist even when out of sight
Preoperational -
2-7 years old, too young to perform mental operations,
they lack conservation - properties of a substance remain the same even if it changes shape, they are also egocentric - difficult perceiving something from another’s point of view, Begins to slowly develop Theory of mind - ability to infer other’s mental states
Concrete operational - 7-11 years old, begins to be capable of true logical thought
Formal operational - 11+ years old, begin to be capable of abstract thinking and deducing consequences
56
Describe the following concepts? In which stages should we find them? (object permanence, conservation, egocentrism, theory of mind).
object permanence - awareness that things continue to exist even when out of sight (sensorimotor)
conservation - properties of a substance remain the same even if it changes shape (concrete operational)
egocentric - difficult perceiving something from another’s point of view (preoperational)
Theory of mind - ability to infer other’s mental states (preoperational)
57
What is a zygote?
a fertilized egg with chromosomes form sperm and egg
58
What are the different prenatal developmental stages? In which stage do gender differences begin? Most of the structures and organs in the human body are formed by which week?
Germinal stage - 2 weeks after conception, zygote begins to divide
Embryo Stage - implantation phase, after 2 weeks to 8 weeks, begins to show differences in gender development, by the 8th week most of the structures and organs of the human body are formed
Fetal stage - 9th week to full term, brain undergoes rapid expansion
59
In which stage does the brain undergo a rapid expansion?
Fetal stage
60
How does the environment affect the fetus? What is the role of the placenta in the development of the fetus?
Environment affects fetus via epigenetics where genes and environment affect each other
Placenta handles everything between mother and fetus, everything goes from mom’s blood stream then diffusion across placenta then to fetus
61
What are important teratogens?
any agent that damages the process of development (smoking and alcohol)
62
How is operant conditioning defined?
the strengthening of behavior by consequences that occur
63
Describe Thorndike’s puzzle box experiments? What do we mean by the “learning process was orderly”?
there was wooden crate with a door that would open when the concealed latch was moved by a cat that was eager to receive their food reward, the cats learned to trigger the door each time they were placed in the box so that they could get to their food
The “learning process was orderly” means that the first time the cat tried to escape it took him like 7 minutes but the second time it took less time
64
From Skinner’s perspective, how are reinforcers and punishers defined?
reinforcers - anything that is likely to increase behavior
punishment - anything that is likely to decrease behavior
65
What is the different between primary and secondary reinforcers? How are secondary reinforcers acquired?
Primary reinforcers - direct biological ties
Secondary reinforcers - not directly biologically relevant, derive importance from learned associations with primary reinforcers (ie money)
66
What is the difference between positive and negative punishment?
Positive punishment - we are presented with something that deters us from that behavior in the future
Negative punishment - when a rewarding stimulus is removed to help us avoid the behavior that got us there
67
What is the difference between extinction in classical conditioning and operant conditioning?
Extinction in classical conditioning - response rate drops off rapidly, organisms learns to associate 2 stimuli and it responds automatically
Extinction in operant conditioning - response rate drops off rapidly and if rest period is given then spontaneous recovery is typically seen, associates behaviors it controls with its consequences
68
What are the different types of reinforcement schedules?
Interval schedule - reinforces behavior after a certain amount of time
Ratio schedule - reinforces behavior after a certain number of responses
- Fixed-ratio- reinforces behavior after a fixed number of responses
- Variable ratio schedule - reinforces behavior after a changing number of responses (sustains your lotto playing habits)
69
Which reinforcement schedule sustains your lotto playing habits?
Variable ratio schedule
70
What is in the brain structure more likely to be involved in operant conditioning?
Nucleus Accumbens - likely to be involved in operant conditioning, involved in positively and negatively reinforced behaviors
71
What are the three different cognitive perspectives on consciousness? How does the global workspace theory differ from the synchronization perspective?
1) consciousness is a global workspace - global workspace theory (consciousness is a place where we temporarily attend to information that is at hand or deemed important)
2) conscious awareness occurs when neurons from many distinct brain regions work together - synchronization
Synchrony of cell assemblies are what binds together separate experiences (round and red) into the experience of an apple
3)Consciousness is a learned process - radical plasticity theory explains consciousness as a skill the brain acquires
72
What is wakefulness and awareness?
Wakefulness - degree of alertness reflecting whether a person is awake or asleep
Awareness - monitoring of information from the environment and from one’s own thoughts
73
When fully conscious, when does an individual attain a flow state? How is flow state described in the book?
Fully conscious - Flow states occur when people are so engaged with an activity that time does not matter at all, most likely to occur in activities where our skill level meets the challenge of a task or activity
74
What is selective attention?
ability to focus awareness on specific features in the environment while ignoring others
75
What is the cocktail party effect?
you are at a party and ignoring other conversations but the minute you hear your name you become aware of the other conversation
76
What is inattentional blindness?
we fail to notice unexpected objects in our surroundings
77
What does the perceptual load theory explain?
the ability to attend to information is determined by both the demands of the situation and the attentional resources one has available at a particular moment (ie why it is easier to ignore your phone when you are absorbed in a novel than when reading a boring book)
78
What is sustained attention? What test is used to study it, and what do the studies reveal?
Sustained Attention - ability to maintain focused awareness on a target or an idea
Study is via the Continuous Performance Test (CPT) - detecting Y’s on the screen rapidly, shown that most people cannot perform well on CPT tasks for more than about 15 minutes and accuracy declines after 5 to 7 minutes
79
What is the purpose of the threaded cognition theory proposed by Salvucci and Taatgen (2008)? In the context of this theory, when does a bottleneck develop in the attempt to access consciousness?
purpose - provides predictions of how multitasking behavior can result in interferences for a given set of tasks, Bottlenecking occurs with multitasking when tasks compete for access to the workspace of consciousness or where attention is focused at a given point in time, key reason multitasking is much more likely to be an exercise in rapid switching between tasks that to involve actual performance of 2 tasks at a time
80
What can we achieve through meditation? What are the advantages of meditation training?
enhance awareness or attention, cultivates kindness or compassion, develop mindfulness (fully conscious state of heightened awareness of the present moment), advantages are it can enhance well-being, reduce stress, decrease depression, improve physical health, reduce pain, helps to prevent distraction and improve reading performance in people with attentional deficits and dyslexia, increases vigilance and enhances working memory
81
What is the difference between concentration techniques and mindfulness meditation?
Concentration techniques - spend time sitting still, relaxed and alert, focusing attention on breathing and keep attention on breath, people perceive visual objects with greater sensitivity and helps them to attend to such objects longer (sharper vision)
Mindfulness meditation - imagery and silent recitation of phrases designed to reinforce certain attitudes like connection to others, recognizing our commonalities rather than differences, sharing good feelings and intentions, and extending self-care
82
How would you describe circadian rhythms? What do they regulate?
Circadian Rhythms - variations in physiological processes that cycle within approximately a 24-hour period, including the sleep-wake cycle, regulates sleep-wake cycle, feeding, hormone production, cellular regeneration, and mood and memory
83
How does the suprachiasmatic nucleus regulate physiological activity on daily cycles?
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) - when retina sense light it stimulates SCN which signals the pineal gland to decrease the melatonin, in the evening decreased activity in the SCN prompts the secretion of melatonin which increases relaxation
84
What does REM stand for?
Rapid eye movements (REM)
85
When are we more likely to produce alpha, beta, theta, and delta wave patterns? How do these wave patterns differ from each other?
Beta waves - rapid, low energy waves that occur while we are awake and alert
Alpha waves - when we are awake but relaxed and drowsy
Theta waves - slower and lower energy waves than alpha, occurs as we enter N1 sleep (sensory curtain drops and no longer responsive to outside world) - light sleep
Delta waves - higher energy waves during N3 sleep - deepest stage
86
In what dream stage(s) do dream occur?
On return to N1 we enter REM sleep and are dreaming for 8-10 minutes before process happens again 4-6 times
87
What are the functions and benefits of sleep?
To help with metabolic cleanup in the brain
To restore neural growth
To consolidate memory
To produce enzymes that protect against cellular damage
Fights cell damage
Helps with myelin production
Helps with learning - memory
88
Describe the different perspectives on what dreams are and what they mean discussed in the book.
Psychoanalytic theory - Freud argued that each dream is an attempt to fulfill unacceptable desires or satisfy unconscious wishes, 2 levels:
Manifest level - surface level of dreams, recalled upon waking
Latent level - deeper, unconscious level of dreams, meaning is found at this level
Biological Theory - (AIM) - argues that dreams are devoid of meaning and are a result of random brain activity, activation - amount of neural activation and ranges from low to high activation, input - whether stimulation is internal or external, mode- mental states from logical (wakeful) to loose-illgocial (dreaming)
Cognitive Theory - dreams not much different than everyday thinking, we use imagery, memory, speech, and problem solving during dreaming too, dreaming during non-REM is closer to waking thought than REM and is less visual and more verbal
89
What is the effect of alcohol and sedatives in the human body?
Alcohol effects - relaxation, depressed brain activity, slowed behavior, reduced inhibitions, risk - accidents, brain damage, liver damage, blackouts, birth defects
Sedative effects - relaxation ,sleep, risk - accidents, slowed heart rate, possible death
90
What is the effect of nicotine and caffeine in the human body?
Nicotine effects - arousal, stimulation, increased heart rate, risk -cardiovascular disease, lung cancer risk with smoking
Caffeine effects - alertness, nervousness, increased heart rate, risk anxiety and insomnia
91
What are the dangers of using MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine)?
Risks of MDMA (ecstasy) - depression, mental deficits, cardiovascular problems
92
What are known side effect of LSD?
hallucinations, change in mood, possible spiritual experience, synesthesia (ie hearing images)
93
What happens when someone overdoses?
There is an anticipatory response - secretion of drug antagonists to help eliminate the drug from the body (drug tolerance), body secretes these antagonists when in the same environment but in a new environment the body will not be able to respond and leads to drug overdose
94
What is escape conditioning?
a type of learning in which an organism learns to make a particular response in order to terminate an aversive stimulus (ie taking tylenol for headache, parents give yelling kid ice cream)
95
What is avoidance conditioning?
a type of learning in which an organism responds to a signal in a way that avoids exposure to an aversive stimulus (ie lowering speed when speed limit drops to avoid getting pulled over, crying when you do something bad so you don’t get spanked)
96
What is consciousness?
Consciousness - a person’s subjective experience of the world and the mind, an awareness of one’s surroundings and of what’s in one’s mind at a given moment, includes inner awareness, immediate awareness, Imposes order on the objects and events we experiences - puts information together in a coherent way
97
What is the importance of consciousness?
Filter relevant information in - irrelevant out, Enable mental processes - analyze, compare, and interpret information, Integrates present information with past information - anticipate future events (including mortality)
98
What are the conscious vs nonconscious causes of daily experiences views?
Freud: Behavior → determined by biological impulses and the unconscious interplay of the physic forces those impulses put in motion; people are not fully aware of many causes of their behavior, including ones originating in their own unconscious mind
Skinner: Behavior → external stimulus conditions and event (person’s reinforcement history)
Self theory and humanistic movement (Carl Rogers) - capacity to make free choices
Contemporary cognitive perspective - to explain psychological phenomena we must look at deterministic mechanism, higher-order choice or “executive” processes play a role in behavior
99
What are the layers of consciousness?
Implicit - part of your mind that reacts/responds automatically, or without conscious thought
Explicit - aspect of your consciousness that is truly conscious and controlled
2 processes occur simultaneously and independently
100
What are the 2 systems of thinking that govern experience?
Experimental system - an unconscious, intuitive, and automatic system of thinking
Most of our thoughts and behaviors are governed by experimental system (ie driving on a familiar road)
Cognitive system - a conscious, rational, and controlled system of thinking
101
What is automatic thinking?
thought that is nonconscious, unintentional, involuntary, and effortless
Lack of conscious intent - not consciously initiates, determined by (exposed) stimuli
Efficiency - requires very little time and effort, able to operate when being rushed, working on many tasks simultaneously, or having divided attention
Lack of control - automatic thinking is difficult to control
Lack of awareness - automatic thinking occurs even when people are not aware that they are doing it, priming occurs when exposure to a influences influences a response to a later stimulus without our conscious awareness (ie counting money leads to eating more candy, money makes you more self-reliant)
102
What are other knowledge structures that can be automatically activated by stimuli in the environment?
goals, motivations, evaluations, “achievement”
103
How is attention defined in the video?
Attention is the focusing of our mind’s lens on the world
104
From an evolutionary perspective why is attention important?
Attention is important because we focus on the information we need to get around and survive (ie predators and sunlight)
105
How good are we at divided attention? What do we learn from the “count the passes” illustration?
We are not good at divided attention, “Count the passes” illustration shows us that when we focus on one thing we miss other things happening
106
Why is cell phone use while driving dangerous? How fragile is attention?
Cell phone use while driving is dangerous, because cell phone conversation is equivalent of having a blood alcohol level of .08, attention is very fragile
107
What is joint attention? Why is it important?
Joint attention- an individual communicates attention through outward cues (ie nod, widening eyes), most basic forms of communication we share with other species, some psychologists think it’s a precursor to language learning
108
What structures in the brain are important for attention?
Prefrontal cortex - tied to working memory, short term storage
Thalamus - separates out important parts of sensory experience and allows us to focus
109
What is the result of sleep deprivation?
leads to weakened memory, weakened immune system, and negative moods
110
What is the main function of sleep? Why is it important?
to give us time where main sensory input is cutoff to use the parts of the brain that are usually used for explicitly processing incoming information and use it to go over the events from the day
111
What are the different sleep stages?
1) Stage 1 Sleep - only lasts a few minutes, start having hypnagogic dreams (start of sleep, replaying snippets of day), identifying what the work is to do the rest of the night
2) Stage 2 Sleep - half and hour, see brief events in EEG (sleep spindle or K complexes), sleep spindles involved in information processing and move them into brain to integrate them
3) Deep sleep - stages 3 and 4 - very large slow waves in EEG
Go back up until you hit REM sleep - characterized by bursts of rapid eye movement, very fast EEGs, muscle paralysis so you don’t act out dreams
112
What are hypnagogic dreams?
start of sleep, replaying snippets of day
113
How is REM sleep characterized?
characterized by bursts of rapid eye movement, very fast EEGs, muscle paralysis so you don’t act out dreams
114
How is the activation-synthesis theory of dreams described?
Brain is responding to internally generated symbols and imposing a meaning on them, Conscious dreaming state stitches together images and feelings granted from unconscious brain, consolidate memories from day, and prepare for future events
115
How much sleep do we need?
Newborns - 16 hours per day
6 year old - 11-12 hours
Adulthood - 7-7.5 hours
116
What is the origin of insomnia?
Origin from psychology - Almost an anxiety disorder
117
How does cocaine “hijack” the brain? Explain the process and also explain what do we mean by "cocaine hijacking the brain."
Cocaine hijacks the system because with drugs there are no consummatory behaviors (eating, drinking) so it hits the dopamine system directly and quickly without any preliminaries.
118
How does cocaine increase the activity of dopamine at dopamine synapses in the brain?
In the presence of cocaine, dopamine remains active in the synapses 300 times longer than in a normal state, so much dopamine in the brain of cocaine addicts eventually damages their dopamine receptors and they never regain their original efficiency
119
What is the role of the nucleus accumbens in drug addiction?
activation of dopamine system coming in via rewards, center of pleasure and rewards
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According to the video, what are the functions of rewards?
1)one comes back for more if they get a reward (learning behavior) 2) one will go closer to rewards (approach behavior) 3) emotional function - makes you happy
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What are the main structures of the limbic system?
Hippocampus - helps form memories and learn
Amygdala - contributes to emotions
Striatum - form habits, routine behavior, and processing reward
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What is the role of the VTA in the reward system (circuit)?
A reward activates cells in VTA and sets off a chain of reactions in reward circuit, the long projections go to VS
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Why is the ventral striatum (VS) central to the experience of pleasure?
VS activation reaches nucleus accumbens which is brain's pleasure center and when activated it generates an electrical signal to release neurotransmitters and how cells communicate
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What is the importance of the release of dopamine when we experience natural rewards?
dopamine’s response to rewards helps brain learn, adapt, and navigate world
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What other brain areas are influenced by the reward system?
Reward pathway extends to prefrontal cortex (which powers ability to think, plan, and make decisions), cerebellum (coordination and attention)
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How does methamphetamine increase the activity of dopamine at dopamine synapses in the brain? Why is methamphetamine (meth) so addictive?
At low doses meth blocks the re-entry of dopamine into the presynaptic cell, high doses can increase release of dopamine leading to more dopamine that becomes trapped in synapse, the post synaptic cell activated to dangerous levels making meth very addictive
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According to the video, what prevents drug addicts from experiencing the same euphoria as when first using an addictive drug?
Repeated use of drugs, changes wiring of brain and prevents user from feeling same euphoria when first using drug
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How is addiction described in the video?
when a person has to take a drug to feel normal
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How is conditioning and dopamine related?
Dopamine increases when you see pleasing stimuli, making you unable to resist which conditions you (obesity, drug use)
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What is the common trait most addicts share involving dopamine receptors?
Reduced level of dopamine receptors
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What are common pain prescriptions drugs used to get high?
Vicodin, Oxycodone, and other opioids
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What takes place during consolidation? When is consolidation more likely to occur?
the process of establishing, stabilizing, or solidifying a memory, New proteins are manufactured in the brain during long-term memory formation and consolidation provides time for these proteins to develop, Occurs during sleep
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Describe the three ways memories are stored in memory: hierarchies, schemas, and networks.
Hierarchies - ways of organizing related pieces of information from the most specific feature they have in common to the most general (ie human → hominid → primate → mammal → animal), Schemas - patterns of thinking and behavior that people use to interpret the world ( ie social schemas - be respectful, don’t eat garlic, pay for movie tickets), Networks- chain of associations between related concepts (ie Fire engine → emergency)
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What is a flash bulb memory?
a detailed snapshot memory for what we were doing when we first heard of a major, public, and emotionally charged event (ie 9/11)
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What is iconic and echoic memory?
Iconic - trace memory of a visual sensation, Echoic - short-term retention of sounds
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What is the role of the central executive in Baddeley’s model of short term memory?
decides where to focus attention and hones in on specific aspects of a stimulus
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What is an episodic buffer and phonological loop?
Episodic buffer - provides temporary storage of information that will become long-term memories of specific events
Phonological loop - assists the central executive by providing extra storage for a limited number of digits or words for up to 30 seconds at a time
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What is the serial position effect? How are the recency and primacy effects explained?
tendency to have better recall for items in a list according to their position in the list, Primacy effect - tendency to preferentially recall items at the beginning of a list, Recency effect - tendency to recall for items at the end of a list
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What is implicit memory? What is the difference between procedural memory and priming?
(aka non-declarative) - type of memory made up of knowledge based on previous experience, such as skills that we perform automatically once we have mastered them; resides outside conscious awareness
Procedural memory - knowledge we hold for almost any behavior or physical skill we learn (ie riding a bike, driving a car)
Priming - a kind of implicit memory that aries when recall is improved by earlier exposure to the same or similar stimuli
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In the context of brain functions, how is long-term potentiation defined?
strengthening of a synaptic connection that results when a synapse of one neuron repeatedly fires and excites another neuron
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What are cell assemblies?
networks of nerve cells that persist even after stimulation has stopped, the more times synapses in these assemblies fire together the stronger the network becomes
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What is the role of the hippocampus on memory?
repeated firing of neural impulses necessary to convert a short-term memory into a long-term one occurs mostly in the hippocampus, memory consolidation in here may take hours, days, or weeks before being transferred back to the cortex for permanent storage
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What do we know about the research on transcranial direct current stimulation?
method of treatment that can stimulate both cortical and deeper brain structures; unlike rTMS it can be used during movement, improves recall of word pairs and of pictures in young and older adults
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What is the basic premise of reconsolidation?
occurs when reactivation of a memory weakens the original memory and a new consolidation happens, resulting in a slightly different memory (process of remembering changes our original memory)
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What are recovered memories?
memory from a real event that was encoded, stored, but not retrieved for a long period of time until some later event brings it suddenly to consciousness
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When and why does suggestibility occur?
occurs when memories are implanted in our minds based on leading questions, comments, or suggestions from someone else or some other source, most prone to suggestions that are present in the interval between our original experience and the time we are asked to recall it
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What is the role of misinformation effect on memory distortion?
occurs when information learned after an original event (ie crime) is wrong or misleading but gets incorporated in the memory as true
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Define interference? What is the difference between retroactive and proactive interference?
Interference - disruption of memory because other information competes with the information we are trying to recall, Retroactive interference - disruption of memory because new experiences or information causes people to forget previously learned experiences or information, Proactive interference - disruption of memory because previously learned information interferes with the learning of new information
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What is the forgetting curve?
graphic depiction of how recall steadily declines over time, with each passing day, we remember less, though the rate of decline slow
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What is blocking? What are the two examples of blocking discussed in the book?
inability to retrieve some information that once was stored (ie person’s name or an old phone number) leads to tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
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What is the difference between anterograde and retrograde amnesia?
Anterograde amnesia - inability to remember events and experiences that occurs after an injury or the onset of a disease, Retrograde amnesia - inability to recall events or experiences that happened before the onset of a disease or injury
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What is a retrieval cue?
Retrieval cue - something outside head in the environment that is related to trigger memory
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What factors aid memory retrieval?
returning to the environment in which you learned something
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What is the encoding specificity principle?
by placing yourself in the place where the original learning process occurred, we prime ourselves to retrieve memories more readily that were encoded in that same space
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What is state-dependent retrieval?
if you’re in a certain mood when you form a memory, it seems to be the case that when you return to that mood you can remember easier, mood serves a retrieval cue
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Environmental can direct behavior nonconsciously by?
automatic perceptual activity creates behavioral tendencies through a perception-behavior link
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What is vicariously learning?
learning through the experiences of someone else
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What is ideomotor action?
think about an action increases its likelihood of occuring
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What does automatic perception induce?
currently present objects, events, behavior of others (not in stream of consciousness)
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How does cocaine hijack the brain?
it reinforces the behavior and leads to an association between pleasure and cocaine
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What are depressants?
“downers”, calm neural activity and slow bodily functions (alcohol and opiates) - you’re not thinking as much
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What are stimulants?
amphetamine and cocaine, “uppers”, temporarily excite neural activity and arouse body functions
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What are hallucinogens?
LSD and PCP, distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
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What is the mesolimbic dopamine system?
mediates reward pleasure, evidence of this reward system:
1) rats will press a bar for electrical stimulation of mesolimbic dopamine system - if this area is damaged this behavior stops
2)addictive drugs cause the release of dopamine or prolong its availability in the synaptic cleft
3) drugs like major tranquilizers, which block dopamine receptors or decrease its availability, are not abused
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What do drugs do?
1)stimulate neurons that release dopamine
2) inhibit neurons that inhibit release of dopamine
3) block mechanism that removes dopamine from the synapse
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What are nucleus accumbens?
central area for attention and perhaps habit formation (addictive action of dopamine)
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What is dependence hypothesis (withdrawal escape)?
you want to avoid or escape withdrawal
Physical dependence - a physiological addiction in which more of drug is needed to prevent symptoms of withdrawal
Psychological dependence - a condition in which drugs are needed to maintain a sense of well-being or relief from negative emotions
Feel anxious, insecure, or just sick
To alleviate the symptoms they take the drug again
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What is incentive sensitization theory?
Addiction is a result of drug-induced brain changes that lead to intense incentive motivation for drugs
Pulses of “wanting” triggered by drug cues
Can control behavior implicitly
May experience feelings of drug craving
1) liking the experience (classical conditioning - associating drug with pleasure) 2)drug cues (objects, places, etc.) 3)incentive salience - drug cues become highly desired and sought-after incentives in their own right (ie crushes, wanting new shoes)
Attribution of incentive salience in the critical step that gives rise to wanting
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What factors affect memory?
how much you concentrate on and rehearse the information, context in which you learn something and recall it, motivation to remember or forget psychological significant events, physical state and biological conditions, interference from other events and experiences
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What is memory?
the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval information
1) recall - retrieving information that is not currently in you conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time
2) recognition - identifying items previously learned
3) relearning - learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time
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What is encoding?
converting information into a form usable in memory, processing sensory input
encoding sounds - acoustically, auditory signals becomes strings of recognizable sounds (repeating a phone number in your head)
encoding its meaning - semantically (think about the first number and relate it to something like number 3 - you have 3 dogs)
encoding its image - visually
mentally organize it - process information more easily when we can organize it into meaningful units or structures
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What is organizational encoding?
categorizing information by noticing the relationship among a series of items
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What is chunking?
breaking a large amount of information into smaller chunks to make it easier to recall
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What is level's processing theory?
deeper levels of processing result in long-lasting memories
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What is elaborative encoding?
process of actively relating new information to knowledge that is already in memory - rephrase what you read and hear into meaningful terms, relate material to known information, make the information personal
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What is visual encoding?
we more easily remember concrete words, events, or things which lends themselves to visual mental imagery, imagery is heart of mnemonics (memory aids - use vivid imagery and organizational devices)
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What is Method of Loci-method of places?
links items to be remembered with objects in familiar locations - remember objects in order (ie lion on bed - first thing you see)
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Why does visual imagery encoding work?
Involves elaborative encoding, you are encoding semantically and visually (2 codes better than 1)
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What is the 3 stage processing model of storage?
1) Moving information from sensory memory to STM requires attention
2) Move information from STM to LTM requires proper encoding
3) Retrieval puts information from LTM into STM
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What is short-term memory?
- “working memory” an active system that processes information, associate new and old information and solves problems, limited capacity - 7 items (plus or minus 2)
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What is maintenance rehearsal?
conscious rehearsing rehearsal of information by repeating it over and over again in your mind
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What is long-term memory?
unlimited capacity, potentially long duration (lifetime), memories may be available but not accessible, many long-term memories are encoded as images (ie Mona Lisa) and sounds (ie Jaws theme song) and smells and tastes, in general LTM encoded in meaningful form (elaborative encoding)
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What did we learn from HM case?
memory is not a single, unified, conscious system, 2 memory systems operating in tandem
most famous amnesic, unable to form new long-term memories (anterograde amnesia), had the ability to learn without awareness (being able to walk to bathroom without “knowing” where it is)
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What are the types of long-term memories?
- explicit - conscious recall : semantic (facts and knowledge) episodic memory (personally experienced events)
- implicit (nondeclarative)- without conscious recall : procedural memory (motor and cognitive skills)
priming (enhanced identification of objects and words)
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What is implicit memory?
the influences of past experience on later behavior and performance,even though people are not trying to recollect them and are not aware that they are remembering them (ie being introduced to reckless or adventurous without knowing)
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What is a retrieval cue?
external information associated with stored information and helps bring it to mind
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What are sins of distortion?
human memory is reconstructive, people often fill in the blanks with information that is consistent with their schemas, we remember things that are not there
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What is the constructionist theory?
memory is not a replica of the past, but a representation, or reconstruction, of the past - memories may be distorted
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What are memory schemas?
an organized knowledge structure, such as set of beliefs, that reflects one’s past experiences, expectancies, and knowledge about the world - people are better at recalling information consistent with memory schemas (ie Jack giving Barbara a dozen roses because they were exposed to Jack proposing to Barbara), schemas become stronger and more resistant to change over time (we use schemas to fill in gap as time passes)
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What is suggestibility?
lingering effects of misinformation, tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections, memory is reconstruction as well as reproduction, we can’t be sure whether memory is real by how it feels (ie eyewitness testimony)
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