psychopathology

Question 1

what are the 4 definitions of abnormality

Answer 1

1. failure to function adequately
2. deviation from ideal mental health
3. deviation from social norms
4. statistical infrequency

Question 2

define failure to function adequately

Answer 2

someone may cross thr ‘abnormal’ line when they can no longer cope with the demand of everyday life, eg: basic hygiene and nutrition

Question 3

what are Rosenhan and Seligman’s indicators that someone is failing to function adequately

Answer 3

1) severe distress
2) maladaptive behaviour
3) irrational, illogical behaviour
4) when behaviour doesn’t adhere to interpersonal standards eg. eye contact

Question 4

define deviation from ideal mental health

Answer 4

this definition looks at what is normal mental health and anyone who deviates from this is therefore abnormal

Question 5

what is Marie Jahoda’s criteria for ideal mental health

Answer 5

-can cope with stress well
- thoughts and behaviours are rational and we have a realistic view of the world
- able to self-actualise and reach full potential
- do not rely on other people and are a master of our own environment

Question 6

define statistical infrequency

Answer 6

a person’s behaviour is normal when is common statistically (frequent), a person’s behaviour is abnormal if it is rare (statistically infrequent)

Question 7

define deviation from social norms

Answer 7

when someone behaves in a way that is different from what we expect. society makes a collective judgement about what is right and wrong (therefore these norms are specific to the culture we live in)

Question 8

one strength and one weakness of the failure to function definition

Answer 8

s: represents a threshhold for when people need professional help so those who need it most can access it

w: it is normal to show some of the behaviours at certain times of your life eg. severe distress over the death of a loved one. This doesn’t make you mentally ill, we could incorrectly label people

Question 9

one strength and one weakness of the statistical infrequency definition

Answer 9

s: real world application- used in clinical practice to assess the severity of someone’s symptoms

w: unusual characteristics can be positive eg. high IQ. these don’t make someone abnormal

Question 10

one strength and one weakness of the deviation from ideal mental health definition

Answer 10

s: takes a more positive view on mental health disorders, defines normal and then looks at what is lacking (treatment can be tailored to what they need)

w: too optimistic- very few people meet all of the criteria all of the time as life may become very stressful and we may not always cope with this

Question 11

one strength and one weakness of the deviation from social norms definition

Answer 11

s: distinguishes between desirable and undesirable behaviour

w: culturally relative- norms are different
w: some deviations from social norms are lifestyle choices eg. living off grid without a job

Question 12

What are the two explanations of OCD

Answer 12

genetic and neural

Question 13

cognitive characteristics of OCD

Answer 13

• obsessions
• unwanted irrational thoughts

Question 14

behavioural characteristics of OCD

Answer 14

• repetitive compulsions to reduce anxiety
• avoidance of anxious situations

Question 15

emotional characteristics of OCD

Answer 15

• extreme anxiety as a result of obsessions and compulsions
• depression due to anxiety and avoidance of situations
• guilt if the complusions isn’t completed

Question 16

what is the genetic explanation of OCD

Answer 16

• suggests we may inherit genes which make us more vulnerable to OCD
• candidate genes- some researchers have tried to isolate genes (candidate genes) which may be linked to developing OCD. eg. SERT gene
• twin studies- Nestadt et al: meta-analysis of 14 twin studies, the concordance rates were higher for identical twins than non-identical (identical twins shared the disorder and 100% of their genes)

Question 17

evaluate the biological explanation of OCD

Answer 17

w: ignores the role of one’s environment, if it was completely genetic concordance rates would be 100%
w: OCD is believed to be polygenic rather than caused by a specific gene like SERT

s: research support- twin studies and Ozaki et al: 6/7 participants with the mutation of the SERT gene had OCD or a related disorder

Question 18

what is the basal ganglia and how does it link to OCD

Answer 18

basal ganglia: set of brain structures which make decisions about movement that are likely to lead to a positive outcome and avoiding things that might be unpleasant

an abnormality in this can lead to OCD, explains the compulsions as things that are done to avoid the consequences of the obsession

Question 19

what are the two parts of the neural explanation of OCD

Answer 19

1. basal gaglia
2. serotonin

Question 20

what is serotonin and how does it link to OCD

Answer 20

serotionin: a hormone which controls mood and carries messages from one neuron to the next

those with OCD have LOW LEVELS of serotonin because messages about regulating mood cannot be normally transmitted which may explain the anxiety which causes obsessions

Question 21

evaluate the basal ganglia explanation of OCD

Answer 21

s: supporting research- Wise and Rapoport: found OCD was common in Parkinsons and torettes sufferers both of which involve an abnormality in the basal ganglia

w: not everyone with torettes and parkinsons has OCD therefore the basal ganglia cannot be the only contributing factor

Question 22

evaluate the serotonin explanation of OCD

Answer 22

s: we use SSRIs to treat OCD which make the serotonin stay in the synapse for longer and this relieves some of the symptoms

w: however, it is not easy to establish cause and effect with the SSRIs and improvement, other factors could be involved

Question 23

how can OCD be treated

Answer 23

SSRIs these are antidepressants which block the serotonin reuptake sites on the presynaptic neuron so that serotonin remains in the synapse for longer to be recieved on the receptor sites of the postsynaptic neuron

alternative drugs tricyclics which work in a similar way to SSRIs but have more side effects

Question 24

evaluate the use of drugs like SSRIs to treat OCD

Answer 24

s: research to support the effectiveness- Soomro et al found that SSRIs were more effective than placebos in reducing symptoms and the severity of symptoms
s: cheap and require little effort they don’t cost the NHS much in comparison to CBT and CBT requires them to put in the effort of turning up and completing homework

w: could be considered unethical compared to CBT because it is not empowering for a patient as it requires no effort to take the drug
w: side effects including anxiety, digestive problems, visual and sleeping problems- limits approperiatness

Question 25

how do the DSM-5 describe phobias

Answer 25

* stimulus must cause immediate panic and anxiety * inolve and excessive and disproportionate fear response to a stimulus * must significantly interfere with day to day life

Question 26

what are the 3 types of phobia

Answer 26

1. specific phobias= relate to a specific object eg. spiders 2. social anxiety relating to social situations 3. agoraphobia= being in public open space or outside

Question 27

what are the emotional characteristics of phobias

Answer 27

* **anxiety** when thinking about or being in the presence of the stimulus * **fear** = like anxiety but more immediate and severe * both fear and anxiety are **disproportionate** to the threat of the object

Question 28

what are the cognitive characteristics of phobias

Answer 28

* **fixating** - may stare for a long time at the stimulus causing extreme anxiety * **irrational beliefs** - illogical thoughts which lack evidence * **innacurate perceptions**

Question 29

what are the behavioural characteristics of phobias

Answer 29

* **endurance**- may remain 'frozen' in the presence of the stimulus * **avoidance** * **panic** - crying, screaming, sweating, running away

Question 30

what is the key idea of the behavioural explanation of phobias

Answer 30

two-process model

Question 31

what is the first part of the two-process model and how does this explain phobias

Answer 31

**Classical conditioning** : phobias are acquired through classical conditioning- this is the association of a neutral stimulus (something that caused no fear before) with an unconditioned stimulus (something that already causes fear). eg: **Little Albert** who was conditioned to associate a white rat with a loud noise which caused a fear response, he became afraid of anything white a fluffy (generalisation)

Question 32

what is the second part of the two-process model and how does this explain phobias

Answer 32

**Operant conditioning** : the phobia is maintained through operant conditioning which can explain avoidance and escape behaviours when they are in the presence of the ohobic stimulus they experience anxiety, they then escape/ avoid the stimulus which reduces anxiety= **negative reinforcement **

Question 33

evaluation of the two process model to explain phobias

Answer 33

s: **useful implications** for treatment- if behaviours can be learnt they can also be unlearnt, this idea has led to therapies such as systematic desensitisation and flooding w: it only explains the behavioural characteristics, it doesn't explain the faulty cognitions so it's **not a full explanation** w: only focusses on the **nurture** side of the nature nurture debate. it is adaptive to fear the things that could harm us (our ancestors feared the for survival) suggesting there are biological factors invloved too

Question 34

what are the two treatments of phobias

Answer 34

1. systematic desensitisation 2. flooding

Question 35

what is systematic desensitisation and what are the 3 stages

Answer 35

changing the negative association of the phobia to a positive association- **counterconditioning** 1. **learn relaxation techniques**: it is impossibe to feel two conflicting emotions at once (reciprocal inhibition) therefore it is impossible to feel fear and anxiety at once 2. **create an anxiety heirarchy**: list events involving the phobia in order of how fearful they are 3. **gradual exposure**: begin with the least feared level then move up the heirarchy when completely calm- this can be in vivo (real life exposure) or in vitro (imagining the fear)

Question 36

evaluation of using systematic desensitisation to treat phobias

Answer 36

s: supporting research- Gilroy et al: used 42 patients with a fear of spiders, treated them with 3 45 min SD sessions and 33 months later they reported less fear than the control group ( who were only taught relaxation techniques) w: it doesn't work for treating evolutionary fears such a heightd that aid survival. these are harder to counter condition as they are part of our biology w: not all aspects are equally as effective- in vivo is more effective than in vitro

Question 37

what is flooding

Answer 37

based on the principles of classical conditioning but involves **immediate and direct exposure** rather than gradual, eg. someone who is afraid of snakes would have a snake put on their shoulder for a long period of time these sessions are longer than systematic desensitisation but less are required how it works: prevents avoidance behaviour, they are made to realise that the stimulus is harmless- they have to endure it until totally calm, this is known as **extinction**

Question 38

evaluation of flooding as a treatment for phobias

Answer 38

s: supporting research- Nesbitt, case of a patient with a 7 year phobia of escalators, made to go up and down repeatedly (accompanied by a therapist), after 27 mins she do it alone, after 29 mins she reported no anxiety, after 6 months it hadn't returned