Research methods Flashcards
(102 cards)
1
Q
4 types of experiment
A
Laboratory
Field
Natural
Quasi
2
Q
lab experiment
A
Takes place in a controlled environment where the researcher manipulates the IV and measures the effect on the DV
3
Q
Advantages of a lab experiment
A
- replicable
- high control= can assume the change in DV was caused by the IV
4
Q
Disadvantages of a lab experiment
A
- low ecological validity due to artificial environment
- demand characteristics as the p is aware they are being studied
5
Q
field experiment
A
carried out in the p’s natural environment but the IV and DV are still manipulated by the researcher
6
Q
advantages of field experiments
A
- high ecological validity as they occur in the natural environment
- unlikely to have demand characteristics
7
Q
disadvantages of field experiments
A
- less control over exarneous variables
- ethical issues- informed consent
8
Q
natural experiment
A
IV is not manipulated by the researcher, it is a naturally ccuring change
9
Q
advantages of natural experiments
A
- high ecolgical validity- the variables aren’t manipulated, the p’s are acting as they would naturally
- allows researchers to study sensitive issues- the variables would often be unethical to manipulate
10
Q
disadvantages of natural experiments
A
- difficult to replicate- the changes in the IV are often ‘one-offs’
- lack of control for the researcher
11
Q
quasi experiements
A
an ‘almost experiment’, the IV forms part of the participant eg: age, gender so they cannot be randomly allocated to conditions
12
Q
advantages of quasi experiments
A
- high level of control- they are often carried out in highly controlled conditions such as a lab, making it easier to eliminate extraneous variables
- replicable- don’t rely on one off or rare situations occuring, so the studies can be easily repeated to test for relability
13
Q
disadvantages of quasi experiments
A
- random allocation to conditions is not possible- by chance the two conditions (eg old and young) could differ on another variable
- may be difficult to find a sample if one condition is rare- eg left vs right handed people
14
Q
how is correlational data displayed?
A
scattergram
15
Q
what does the correlation coefficient -0.8 mean
A
strong negative
16
Q
what does the correlation coefficient -0.2 mean
A
weak negative
17
Q
what does the correlation coefficient +0.8 mean
A
strong positive
18
Q
what does the correlation coefficient +0.2 mean
A
weak positive
19
Q
advantages of correlational data
A
- allows preliminary research to be carried out to indicate whether or not there is a link between variables
- generate large amounts of data- quick and easy to carry out
20
Q
disadvantages of correlational data
A
- impossible to infer cause and effect- other factors cold be involved in causing the change
- only measure linear relationships- not all relationships are linear, some are curvilinear
21
Q
4 distinctions between observations
A
- naturalisitic vs controlled observation
- participant vs non-participant observations
- covert vs overt observations
- structured vs unstructured observations
22
Q
naturalistic observations
A
observing naturally occuring behaviour in the participants natural environment
23
Q
controlled observation
A
observing behaviour in a controlled situation
24
Q
participant observation
A
the researcher joins in with the group they are observing, this can be overt or covert
25
non-participant observation
this is when the researcher observes behaviour from the 'outside'
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covert observations
the participants do not know they are being watched
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overt observations
participants know that they are being watched by the researcher
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structured observations
data is collected using a pre determined coding system- categories may be established
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unstructured observations
the researcher watches behaviour and records anything of interest
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advantages of observations
* ecological validity- you are watching what people do rather than what they say they do (self-report techniques)
* provide a means of conducting preliminary observations to produce hypotheses for future investigations
31
disadvantages of observations
* observer bias- they may look for what they want to see, low inter-rater reliablity
* ethical issues of covert observations- they don't know they are being observed
* demand characteristics of overt observations
32
time sampling
observations are made for several short periods in a given time frame (eg. the first ten minutes of every hour), allowing researchers to see how frequent a given behaviour is in a given time frame
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event sampling
observations are made of a speicific event every time it occurs
34
questionairre/ survey
series of printed questions used to gather information about speicific areas of interest
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closed questions
the researcher determines the range of possible answers, respondents reply by ticking boxes or circling the approperiate answer
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one advantage and one disadvantage of using closed questions
* provide quantitate data which is easy to analyse and compare
* the data may lack realism due to the liited answers available to the repondents
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open questions
questions where the researcher does not limit the range of possible answers
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one advantage and one disadvantage of using open questions
* produce detailed info- qualitative data
* more difficukt to analyse ad compare data
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things to avoid when writing a questionairre
* jargon/ specialist terminology
* start with the shorter/ closed questions to not put them off
* leading questions
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advantages of questionairres
* large amounts of data can be collected quickly as all participants can complete it at once
* convenient- the researcher doesn't have to be present for the p's to complete the questionairre
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disadvantages of questionairres
* social desirablity bias- the p's may want to present themselves in a positive light, giving untruthful answers
* p's may misinterpret questions so their answers may not correspond to the question
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3 types of interviews
* structured
* unstructured
* semi-structured
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structured interviews
the researcher has a set list of questions, all p's are asked all of the same questions in the same order
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unstructured interviews
the researcher starts with a vague idea of what topic they want to study and then ask questions around this topic , all p's have a different interview experience and are asked different questions
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semi-structured interviews
the researcher starts with a basic list of questions but is free to ask add on questions if necesscary
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advantages of interviews
* more flexible than questionairres because the researcher can clarify any issues or misunderstandings
* encourage honesty- the interviewer and interviewee can establish a relationship, encouraging them to disclose more
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disadvantages of interviews
* very time consuming compared to other methods like questionairres , only one participant can be studied at a time
* investigator effects- personal characteristics of the researcher can affect the answer given, eg. a female p may be less likely to open up to a male researcher
48
case study
involves gathering detailed info about an individual or a group of people, often used for unusual cases, info is often gathered through regualr interviews or psychological tests
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advantages of case studies
* rich, qualitiative data which gives an insight into human behaviour
* high ecological validity- no artificial variables to be manipulated
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disadvantages of case studies
* impossible to replicate- so findings cant be checked
* low generalisability- cannot day the results apply to everyone
51
aim of study
where you state what you are going to do in your study, should include what is being studied and what the study is trying to achieve
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formulating an aim
1. to investigate...
2. ...the impact of the IV on the DV (state what they are)
3. ...or whether there is a relationship between two variables (in correlational studies)
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hypothesis
a testable prediction which states what you expect to find
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experimental hypothesis vs null hypothesis
* used for experimental methods
* experimental: a prediction of what you expect to find
* null: this states that your predicted effect will not occur
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alternative hypothesis vs null hypothesis
* used for non-experimental methods
* alternative: testable prediction of what you expect to find
* null: states that the prediction will not occur (note: the null hypothesis is not the reverse of the alternative, it is just saying there won't be an effect)
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directional hypothesis
if past research has shown that a certain result is likely to occur, then the hypothesis will be directional, it predicts the direction the results will go
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non-directional hypothesis
if we are unsure of what the outcome of our research will be then the hypothesis will be non-directional as we have not specified the direction the results will go in
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how to write a hypothesis
1. identify the variables and operationalise the
2. identify whether you are looking for a difference or relationship
Eg: those who consumer 10 units of alcohol will be significantly worse at driving than those who drink 0 units of alcohol
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experimental design
the way in which participants are allocated to conditions (usually two conditions)
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three types of experimental design
* independent measures
* repeated measures
* matched pairs
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independent groups design
different participants are used in each condition (eg one group is given caffiene before a test anf the other group is not given caffiene before the same test)
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advantages of independent groups designs
* no order effects- they only carry out the task once/ in one condition
* less chance of demand characteristics- they only take part in one condition so are less likely to guess the nature of the study
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disadvantages of independent groups designs
* need more participants- each participant is only used once
* individual differences- may be difficult to compare the results of the two groups because the groups may differ from each other
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repeated measures experimental design
the same participants are used in all conditions- the complete one condition then the next
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advantages of the repeated measures design
* no individual differences- same people are used in both conditions and their scores are compared so any differences are a result of changes to the IV
* fewer participants- they're used in btoh conditions so you need less
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disadvantages of the repeated measures design
* order effects- they may do better in the second task (practice effects) or may do worse in the second one (fatigue effects)
* some participants may not return for the second task if there is a gap between them
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matched pairs experimental design
different (but similar) participants are used in each condition, participants are matched across the groups based on any characteristics judged to be important for that particular study
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disadvantages of matched pairs experimental design
* no order effects as participants only take part in one condition
* problems of individual differences are reduced- participants are compared to someone similar to them
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disadvantages of matched pairs experimental design
* matching is difficult- not often enough participants to match each person exactly with another
* many participants are needed- makes the research more costly
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extraneous variables
any variable other than the IV which may produce a change in the DV
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2 types of extraneous variables
* situational variables
* participant variables
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situational variables
variables connected to the research situation eg: the temperature on the day, the lighting, the time of day
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how can situational extraneous variables be controlled
* standardised instructions- set instructions that shoudl be read to all participants to ensure they are all treated in the same way
* standardised procedures- detailed instructions as to how the research should be carried out
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participant variables
variables connected to the research participants, eg: age, gender,IQ
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how can extraneous participant variables be controlled
* matched pairs design
* random allocation of participants to conditions
* counterbalancing in repeated measures designs
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operationalisation
to 'make testable'- we operationalise the IV and DV in order to provide precise descriptions of them that can be easily tested
77
pilot study
**small scale trial run** of a specific research investigation to test out if the planned procedures and **identify any flaws** and areas for improvement before time and money are invested in it
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what problems to pilot studies identify
* the experimental design
* the clarity of standardised instructions
* ways of measuring things eg: behavioural categories
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advantages of pilot studies
* identify problems with the procedure
* research is able to practice carrying it out- will know how long it takes to create a schedule
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reliability
how consistent results are
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three types of reliability
1. internal reliability
2. external reliability
3. inter-observer reliability
82
# think about studies that use tests to measure ability
internal reliability
whether a test is consistent within itself- are all questions of equal difficulty?
83
how can internal reliability be tested
split-half method: involves comparing someone's test scores from the first half of the test to the second half
84
how can internal reliability be improved
by conducting a pilot study to see if the questions are equally difficult
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external reliability
results are consistent when the study is repeated
86
how can external reliability be tested
test-retest method: doing the test again and seeing if similar results are obtained
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how can external reliability be improved
* controlling extraneous variables
* ensuring all the participants recieve the same standardised instructions
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inter-observer reliability
the consistency between different researcher, if more than one researcher is collecting data, do they agree?
89
how can inter-observer reliability be tested
all observers observe the same situation and use the same method to record the data
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how can inter-observer reliability be improved
tighten behavioural categories can be tightened so that they are not ambiguous
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validity
whether or not the researcher is measuring what it intends to measure
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external validity
do the research findings reflect real world situations
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ecological validity
the extent to which the research setting represents the real life setting which the researchers are aiming to investigate
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population validity
the extent to which the findings apply to groups of people other than the participants (the population)
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temporal validity
the extent to which the findings apply to other time periods
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what three ways can validity be assessed
* face validity
* content validity
* construct validity
* predictive validity
* concurrent validity
97
face validity
simply looking at the questions and making a judgement as to whether they **seem** to measure what they intend to or not
98
content validity
involves experts examining the questions to see if they measure what they intend to
99
construct validity
scrutinising the test to see if it's testing what it's supposed to, involves looking at the questions to see if they link to overriding constructs
100
predictive validity
seeing whether a score on a test predicts later behaviour
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concurrent validity
assessing the validity of a new test or measure by comparing it to an already established test of the same concept
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