psychopathology Flashcards
(10 cards)
Explain what is meant by statistical infrequency
Implies that a disorder is abnormal if its frequency is more than two
standard deviations away from the mean incidence rates represented on a normally-distributed
bell curve
Evaluate statistical infrequency
strength
Statistical infrequency is almost always used in the clinical diagnoses of mental health disorders as a comparison with a baseline or ‘normal’ value. This is used to assess the severity of the
disorder e.g. the idea that Schizophrenia only affects 1% of the general population, but
subtypes are even less frequent (such as hebephrenic or paranoid Schizophrenia).
— Statistical infrequency makes the assumption that any abnormal characteristics are
automatically negative, whereas this is not always the case. For example, displaying abnormal
levels of empathy (and thus qualifying as a Highly Sensitive Person) or having an IQ score above
130 (and thus being a genius) would rarely be looked down upon as negative characteristics
which require treatment.
Explain failure to function adequately
The failure to function adequately definition of abnormality was proposed by Rosenhan and
Seligman (1989) and suggests that if a person’s current mental state is preventing them from
leading a ‘normal’ life, alongside the associated normal levels of motivation and obedience to
social norms, then such individuals may be considered as abnormal. This occurs when the
patient does not obey social and interpersonal rules (e.g. standing precariously close to others),
are in distress or are distressing, and their behaviour
evaluate failure to function adequately
+A major strength of this definition of abnormality is that it takes into account the patient’s
perspective, and so the final diagnosis will be comprised of the patient’s (subjective) self
reported symptoms and the psychiatrist’s objective opinion. This may lead to more accurate
diagnoses of mental health disorders because such diagnoses are not constrained by statistical
limits, as is the case with statistical infrequency.
— A major weakness of using this definition of abnormality is the idea that it may lead to the
labelling of some patients as ‘strange’ or ‘crazy’, which does little to challenge traditional negative
stereotypes about mental health disorders. Not everyone with a mental health disorder requires a
diagnosis, especially if they have a high quality of life and their illness has little impact upon
themselves or others. Instead, such labelling could lead to discrimination or prejudice faced
against them by employers and acquaintances.
Deviation from social norms
The deviation from social norms definition of abnormality suggests that ‘abnormal’ behaviour is
based upon straying away from the social norms specific to a certain culture. There are general
norms, applicable to the vast majority of cultures, as well as culture-specific norms. For
example, an individual would be diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder (APD) if they
behave aggressively towards strangers (breaching a general social norm) and if they experience
certain hallucinations (which breaches the social norms of multiple cultures also, whereas other
cultures may encourage this as a sign of spirituality).
evaluate deviation from social norms
The fact that mental health diagnoses based on this definition vary so significantly between
different cultures has historically led to discrimination, as a mechanism for social control. For
example, in the nineteenth century within Great Britain, ‘nymphomania’ described the mental
health disorder suffered by women who demonstrated sexual attractions towards working-class
men. In reality, this diagnosis was simply made to prevent infidelity, cement the differences
between social classes and further discriminate against women, thus being a reflection of a
patriarchal society.
— Due to its reliance on subjective social norms, this explanation also suffers from cultural
relativism. One such example would be the hearing of voices which have no basis in reality, or
‘hallucinations’. Some African and Asian cultures in particular would look upon this symptom
positively, viewing it as a sign of spirituality and a strong connection with ancestors, as opposed
to a symptom of Schizophrenia. This therefore suggests that the use of this definition of
abnormality may lead to some discrepancies in the diagnoses of mental health disorders,
between cultures.
Deviation from ideal mental health
Deviation from ideal mental health is the fourth definition of abnormality, and was proposed by
Jahoda (1958). Instead of focusing on abnormality, Jahoda looked at what would comprise the
ideal mental state of an individual. The criteria include being able to self-actualise (fulfill one’s
potential, in line with humanism!), having an accurate perception of ourselves, not being
distressed, being able to maintain normal levels of motivation to carry out day-to-day tasks and
displaying high self-esteem.
evaluate deviation from ideal mental health
— The main issue with this definition of abnormality is that Jahoda may have had an unrealistic
expectation of ideal mental health, with the vast majority of people being unable to acquire, let alone maintain, all of the criteria listed. This means that the majority of the population would be
considered abnormal, even if they have missed a single criteria e.g. being able to rationally cope
with stress (which most people would agree does not merit a diagnosis). Therefore, deviation from ideal mental health may be considered a very limited method of diagnosing mental health
disorders.
— This definition, just like deviation from social norms, suffers from cultural relativism. For
example, the concept of self-actualisation, which suggests that we must each put ourselves first
in order to achieve our full potential, may be viewed as selfish in collectivist cultures (e.g. China)
where the needs of the group are valued more than the needs of the individual. On the other hand,
self-actualisation may be a more popular concept in individualist cultures (e.g. the UK), where
personal achievement is celebrated and the needs of the individual are greater than the needs of
the group. This suggests that deviation from ideal mental health would only be accepted as a
definition for abnormality in some (individualist) cultures.
Characteristics of phobias
The behavioural characteristics of phobias are panic, avoidance and endurance.
Panic — the patient suffers from heightened
physiological arousal upon exposure to the
phobic stimulus, caused by the
hypothalamus triggering increased levels of
activity in the sympathetic branch of the
autonomic nervous system.
* Avoidance — avoidance behaviour is
negatively reinforced (in classical
conditioning terms) because it is carried out
to avoid the unpleasant consequence of
exposure to the phobic stimulus. Therefore,
avoidance severely impacts the patient’s
ability to continue with their day to day lives.
* Endurance — this occurs when the patient
remains exposed to the phobic stimulus for
an extended period of time, but also
experiences heightened levels of anxiety during this time.
* The main emotional characteristics of phobias are anxiety (the emotional consequence of the
physiological response of panic) and an unawareness that the anxiety experienced towards the
phobic stimulus is irrational (from an evolutionary perspective, the phobic anxiety is not
proportionate to the threat posed by the stimulus).
* The cognitive characteristics of phobias are selective attention to the phobic stimulus, irrational
beliefs and cognitive distortions.
* Selective attention — this means that the patient remains focused on the phobic stimulus, even
when it is causing them severe anxiety. This may be the result of irrational beliefs or cognitive
distortions.
* Irrational beliefs — this may be the cause of unreasonable responses of anxiety towards the
phobic stimulus, due to the patient’s incorrect perception as to what the danger posed actually
is.
* Cognitive distortions — the patient does not perceive the phobic stimulus accurately. Therefore,
it may often appear grossly distorted or irrational e.g. mycophobia (a phobia of mushrooms) and
rectaphobia (a phobia of bottoms).
