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Research methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What are hypotheses?

A

Statements about the prediction of the results that can be verified or disproved by investigation.

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2
Q

What is a Null Hypothesis (H0)?

A

Predicts that no difference will be found in the results between the conditions.

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3
Q

What is an Alternative Hypothesis (Ha or H1)?

A

Predicts that there will be a significant difference in the results between the two conditions.

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4
Q

What is a one-tailed hypothesis?

A

States the specific direction the researcher expects the results to move in, e.g., higher or lower.

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5
Q

What is a two-tailed hypothesis?

A

States that a difference will be found between the conditions but does not specify the direction.

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6
Q

What must psychologists do after conducting research?

A

Accept one hypothesis and reject the other based on the results.

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7
Q

Define sampling.

A

The process of selecting a representative group from the population under study.

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8
Q

What is a sample in research?

A

Participants selected from a target population to make generalizations about.

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9
Q

What does ‘representative’ mean in sampling?

A

The extent to which a sample mirrors the target population and reflects its characteristics.

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10
Q

What is generalisability in research?

A

The extent to which findings can be applied to the larger population.

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11
Q

What is a volunteer sample?

A

Participants self-select through advertisements or online postings.

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12
Q

What is opportunity sampling?

A

Uses people who are available at the time the study is conducted.

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13
Q

What is random sampling?

A

Every person in the target population has an equal chance of being selected.

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14
Q

Describe systematic sampling.

A

Selecting participants using a system, such as picking every Nth person.

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15
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A

Identifying subgroups and selecting participants in proportion to their occurrences.

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16
Q

Explain snowball sampling.

A

Researchers find a few participants, who then find more participants.

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17
Q

What is quota sampling?

A

Ensuring the sample fits certain quotas, like a specific number from different demographics.

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18
Q

What are the two main types of variables in experiments?

A

Independent variable and dependent variable.

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19
Q

Define independent variable.

A

The variable that the experimenter manipulates.

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20
Q

Define dependent variable.

A

The variable being measured or the results of the experiment.

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21
Q

What is operationalization of variables?

A

Making variables measurable or quantifiable.

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22
Q

What are extraneous variables?

A

Variables that are not independent but could affect the results.

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23
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

A type of extraneous variable where participants guess the aims of the study and change their behavior.

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24
Q

How can extraneous variables be controlled?

A

By using random allocation of participants or matched pairs design.

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25
What are situational variables?
Variables related to the environment that must be controlled by standardized procedures.
26
What is experimental design?
How participants are allocated to each condition of the independent variable.
27
What is independent design?
Each participant is selected for only one group.
28
What is matched participants design?
Participants are matched for relevant factors but each is in only one group.
29
What is repeated measures design?
Each participant appears in both groups.
30
What is counterbalancing?
Ensuring each condition is equally likely to be used first or second by participants.
31
What are the three main types of experimental methods?
Lab experiments, field experiments, and natural experiments.
32
What characterizes lab experiments?
Conducted in a controlled environment with standardized procedures.
33
What is a field experiment?
Conducted in the everyday environment of participants.
34
What are case studies?
In-depth investigations of a person, group, event, or community.
35
What is correlation?
A measure of the extent to which two variables are related.
36
What is a positive correlation?
An increase in one variable is associated with an increase in the other.
37
What is a negative correlation?
An increase in one variable is associated with a decrease in the other.
38
What does a zero correlation indicate?
No relationship between the variables.
39
What are structured interviews?
Formal interviews with a fixed set of questions.
40
What are unstructured interviews?
Informal interviews without a predetermined set of questions.
41
What are open questions in questionnaires?
Questions designed to encourage full, meaningful answers.
42
What are closed questions in questionnaires?
Questions that can be answered with a simple 'yes' or 'no.'
43
What is covert observation?
Participants are unaware they are being observed.
44
What is overt observation?
Participants are informed they are being observed.
45
What is a pilot study?
A small-scale preliminary study to evaluate the feasibility of a future project.
46
What is reliability in research?
A measure of consistency in results over repeated tests.
47
What is test-retest reliability?
Assessing the same person on two different occasions.
48
What is inter-observer reliability?
The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers.
49
What is meta-analysis?
A statistical procedure to combine findings from multiple studies.
50
What is the purpose of peer review?
To assess the validity and quality of research before publication.
51
What is the purpose of peer review in research?
To prevent faulty data from entering the public domain and to assess the validity of findings and quality of methodology ## Footnote Peer review helps in evaluating the research rating of university departments.
52
What are the potential problems associated with peer review?
It slows publication, may prevent unusual work from being published, and can be used to hinder competing researchers ## Footnote Some doubt its ability to prevent fraudulent research.
53
What is quantitative data?
Numerical data representing how much, how long, or how many there are of something ## Footnote Examples include reaction time and number of mistakes.
54
What type of data is collected through open questions in questionnaires?
Qualitative data ## Footnote This data can be in written or verbal form.
55
Define primary data.
First-hand data collected for the purpose of the investigation.
56
What is validity in research?
How well a piece of research measures what it sets out to or reflects the reality it claims to represent.
57
What is concurrent validity?
The extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure and obtains close results.
58
What does face validity refer to?
Whether the test measures what it’s supposed to measure at first glance.
59
What is ecological validity?
The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalized to other settings or real life.
60
What does temporal validity refer to?
The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalized to other historical times.
61
What is a paradigm in the context of science?
A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline.
62
Define paradigm shift.
A significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline.
63
What does objectivity mean in research?
Minimizing all sources of personal bias to avoid distorting or influencing the research process.
64
What is the empirical method?
Scientific approaches based on gathering evidence through direct observation and experience.
65
What is replicability in scientific research?
The extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers.
66
What is falsifiability?
The principle that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proved untrue.
67
What indicates a significant result in statistical testing?
A low probability that chance factors were responsible for any observed difference, correlation, or association.
68
What is a null hypothesis?
A statement of no effect.
69
When is the null hypothesis rejected?
When the test is significant.
70
What is a type I error?
Rejecting the null hypothesis when it should have been accepted.
71
What is a type II error?
Accepting the null hypothesis when it should have been rejected.
72
What does informed consent entail?
Participants making an informed judgment about whether to take part in a study.
73
What should researchers do regarding deception in studies?
Obtain approval from an ethics committee and fully debrief participants afterward.
74
What is the right to withdraw in research?
Participants can withdraw from a study at any time if they feel distressed or uncomfortable.
75
What does confidentiality in research refer to?
The communication of personal information without revealing identities.

psychology (4 decks)

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