Psychopathology

Question 1

What are the 4 definitions of Abnormality

Answer 1

Deviation from social norms, Statistical infrequency, Failure to function adequately, Deviation from ideal mental health

Question 2

What is Deviation from Social Norms?

Answer 2

Social norms are society’s rules on what are acceptable behaviours, values and beliefs (some of these rules are explicit (violating may mean breaking the law), and some are implicit (unspoken) but are agreed upon/

People who violate (deviate from) these norms (i.e. behaving differently from how we expect to behave) are classed as abnormal

Question 3

What is an example of Deviation from Social Norms?

Answer 3

Antisocial personality disorder (psychopathy)
When a person is impulsive and often aggressive, pleasing only themselves. One important symptom is an absence of prosocial internal standards and a failure to conform to lawful or culturally ethical behaviour

Question 4

What are Weaknesses of the definition, Deviation from Social Norms?

Answer 4

1. Social norms vary as times change (e.g. what is socially acceptable now may not have been 50 years ago)
2. Social norms are defined by culture (this is Cultural Relativism: the idea that a concept only applies in the culture that it was created in)
3. Too much reliance on this definition can lead to violations of human rights. Historical examples of this includes drapetomania (black enslaved people running away), this means the definition is susceptible to abuse.

Question 5

What is Statistical Infrequency?

Answer 5

Behaviours that are statistically rare should be seen as abnormal. What is regarded as statistically rare depends on a normal distribution; most people will be around the mean for the behaviour in question with declining amounts of people away from the mean

Any individual who falls outside the ‘normal distribution’ (usually about 5% of the population- 2.5% either end of the distribution) are perceived as being abnormal

Question 6

What is an example of Statistical Infrequency?

Answer 6

Intellectual disability disorder, can be identified using this model. The average IQ is set at 100, and only approx. 2% of people fall below 70. These individuals may be diagnosed with this disorder as such a low IQ is infrequent

Question 7

What is a Strength of Statistical Infrequency?

Answer 7

The definition can be useful as a part of clinical assessment. One of the assessments of patients with mental disorders includes some kind of measurement of the severity of symptoms compared to statistical norms.
This may have positive economic implications as people are more likely to receive correct diagnosis and therefore more effective treatment.

Question 8

What are Weaknesses of Statistical Infrequency?

Answer 8

1. There are many statistically rare/infrequent behaviours that are actually quite desirable (e.g. high IQ), this limits the usefulness of the definition since to identify behaviours that need treatment, there needs to be a way of identifying infrequent and undesirable behaviours
2. Behaviours that are statistically infrequent in one culture may be more frequent in another. This means that the definition is culturally relative, which means that there may be no universal standards or rules for labelling behaviours as abnormal
3. If someone is living a happy and fulfilled life, there is no benefit in them being labelled as abnormal. This means there are ethical implications because if someone is labelled as abnormal, it may have a negative effect on how others view them

Question 9

What is Failure to Function Adequately?

Answer 9

Individuals are abnormal when their behaviour suggests that they can’t cope with everyday life, behaviour is considered abnormal when it causes distress leading to dysfunction

Question 10

What is an example of Failure to Function Adequately?

Answer 10

Schizophrenia is when a person can have disturbing hallucinations which can lead to bizarre behaviours; they experience DISTRESS and they can be IRRATIONAL and UNPREDICTABLE around other people. They may stop looking after themselves or be able to work

Question 11

What are the 7 features of Abnormality in Failure to Function Adequately?

Answer 11

Personal distress, Observer discomfort, Unpredictability, Unconventionality, Maladaptive behaviour, Irrationality, Violation of moral standards.

Question 12

What is the feature, Personal Distress?

Answer 12

A key feature of abnormality that includes depression and anxiety disorders

Question 13

What is the feature, Observer Discomfort?

Answer 13

Displaying behaviours causing discomfort to others

Question 14

What is the feature, Unpredictability?

Answer 14

Displaying unexpected behaviours characterised by a loss of control (e.g. attempting suicide after failing a test)

Question 15

What is the feature, Unconventionality?

Answer 15

Displaying unconventional behaviour

Question 16

What is the feature, Maladaptive Behaviour?

Answer 16

Behaviour stopping individuals from attaining life goals both socially and occupationally

Question 17

What is the feature, Irrationality?

Answer 17

Displaying behaviour that cannot be explained in a rational way

Question 18

What is the feature, Violation of Moral Standards?

Answer 18

Displaying Behaviour violating society’s moral standards

Question 19

What is a Strength of Failure to Function Adequately?

Answer 19

It tries to include the subjective experience of the individual. It may not be entirely satisfactory as it is difficult to assess distress, but the definition acknowledges that the patient’s experience is important.
Therefore the definition captures the experience of many who needs help, leading to speeder recovery, which has positive economic implications

Question 20

What are Weaknesses of Failure to Function Adequately?

Answer 20

1. Psychopaths can cause great harm and yet still appear normal. This suggests that some (even dangerous) abnormal behaviours can be missed using this definition. This might turn into a lack of diagnosis and therefore a lack of support.
2. Using the definition, such people would be classified as abnormal simply because their cultural norms differ from our own. This suggests that the definition suffers from cultural relativism.

Question 21

What are the 6 characteristics to be NORMAL in Deviation from Mental Health?

Answer 21

1. Having a positive view of yourself (high self-esteem) with a strong sense of identity
2. Being capable of personal growth and self-actualisation
3. Being independent of others (autonomous) and self-regulating
4. Having an accurate view of reality
5. Being able to resist stress
6. Being able to master your environment (love, friendships, work and leisure time)

Question 22

What is Deviation from Mental Health?

Answer 22

Rather than identifying what is ABNORMAL, Jahoda identified 6 characteristics of what is to be NORMAL, and absence of the characteristics indicates abnormality

Question 23

What is an example of Deviation from Mental Health?

Answer 23

Depression illustrates this definition as sufferers generally have low self esteem (i.e.. negative attitude to oneself), they can struggle to make decisions (i.e. not autonomous) and they experience high levels of stress concerning their mood condition

Question 24

What is a Strength of Deviation from Mental Health?

Answer 24

The definition is very comprehensive, as it covers a broad range of criteria for mental health and therefore most of the reason why someone would seek help from mental health services. This means it has practical applications in treatment, by helping people focus on the positive criteria rather than negative aspects of a mental illness

Question 25

What are Weaknesses of Deviation from Mental Health?

Answer 25

1. Most of the criteria are culture bound to Western European and North American cultures (cultural relativism) 2. According to these criteria, most of us are abnormal. (e.g. very few people experience personal growth all the time, therefore the criteria may be ideals rather than actualities). This means that it may not be really usable when it comes to identifying abnormality because the criteria is unrealistic 3. Perceptions of reality change over time (seeing visions was once a positive sign of religious commitment, but now it is perceived as schizophrenia). This means it may lack temporal validity because objective and realistic ideas of the world may change over time

Question 26

What are Phobias?

Answer 26

Phobias are a type of anxiety disorder, they're characterised by uncontrollable, extreme, irrational and enduring feats and involve anxiety levels that are out of proportion to any actual risk. They produce a conscious avoidance of the feared object or situation

Question 27

What is Anxiety?

Answer 27

Anxiety is an emotional that all people experience and is a natural response to potentially dangerous stimuli

Question 28

What are 3 types of Phobias?

Answer 28

1. Specific Phobias (fears about specific objects/situations, like spiders or the dark) 2. Social Anxiety (anxiety related to social situations, like talking to a group of people) 3. Agoraphobia (fear of open spaces/trapped in public space where escape is difficult)

Question 29

What are the 3 Characteristics of Phobias?

Answer 29

Behavioural, Emotional and Cognitive

Question 30

What are the 3 Behavioural Characteristics of Phobias?

Answer 30

Panic, Avoidance and Endurance

Question 31

What is Panic in Behavioural Characteristics?

Answer 31

A person with a phobia may panic in response to the presence of a phobic stimulus. This may involve a range of behaviours, like crying, screaming or running away

Question 32

What is Avoidance in Behavioural Characteristics?

Answer 32

When a person is faced with the object that creates the fear, the immediate response is to avoid it in order to reduce anxiety responses from occurring. This can make it hard to go about daily life.

Question 33

What is Endurance in Behavioural Characteristics?

Answer 33

Instead of avoiding, endurance may occur. This is when a suffers remains int he presence of the phobic stimulus but continues to experience high levels of anxiety

Question 34

What are Emotional Characteristics of Phobias?

Answer 34

Phobias are classified as anxiety disorders, they involved an emotional response of anxiety or fear. Anxiety can therefore be defined as an unpleasant state of high arousal. This prevents the sufferer relaxing and makes it difficult to experience any positive emotions (anxiety can be long term). Fear is the immediate and extremely unpleasant response we experience when we encounter or think about the phobic stimulus. The emotional response that we experience in relation to phobic stimuli go beyond what is reasonable (i.e. it is disproportionate to the danger posed y the phobic stimulus)

Question 35

What are the Cognitive Characteristics of Phobias?

Answer 35

The cognitive element is concerned with the way in which information is processed (i.e. people's thoughts). People with phobias process information about phobic stimuli differently from other objects or situations

Question 36

What are the 3 Cognitive Characteristics of Phobias?

Answer 36

1. Selective attention to the source of the phobia 2. Irrational beliefs 3. Cognitive distortions

Question 37

What is Selective Attention in Cognitive Characteristics?

Answer 37

If a person sees the phobic stimulus, it is hard to look away from it. Keeping attention on something dangerous is positive as it gives us the best chance of reacting quickly to a threat, but it is not so useful when the fear is irrational

Question 38

What are Irrational Beliefs in Cognitive Characteristics?

Answer 38

They may hold irrational beliefs in relation to the stimulus. For example, social phobias involve beliefs such as 'I must always sound intelligent' or 'If I blush people will think I'm weak'. These kinds of beliefs increase the pressure on the sufferer to perform well in social situations

Question 39

What are Cognitive Distortions in Cognitive Characteristics?

Answer 39

The phobic person's perceptions of the phobic stimulus may be distorted. So, someone with a phobia of snakes may see them as alien and aggressive looking

Question 40

What is the Behavioural Approach to Phobias?

Answer 40

The behavioural approach emphasizes the role of learning in the acquisition of the behaviour. It focuses on behaviour we can see, so it is geared towards explaining the behavioural characteristics of phobias.

Question 41

What is Classical Conditioning for Acquisition?

Answer 41

A phobia (conditioned response) is acquired through the the association of something that we initially have no fear of (neutral stimulus) with something that triggers a fear response (unconditioned stimulus)

Question 42

What is Operant Conditioning for Maintenance?

Answer 42

Whenever we avoid a phobic stimulus, we successfully escape the fear and anxiety that we would have suffered if we had remained there. The reduction in fear reinforces the avoidance behaviour (negative reinforcement), therefore they become very resistant to extinction because the sufferer constantly makes reinforcing avoidance responses

Question 43

What is the Aim of Albert's study?

Answer 43

To provide empirical evidence that human emotional responses could be learned through classical conditioning

Question 44

What is the Method of Albert's study?

Answer 44

A lab experiment was conducted with an 11-month boy. Albert was presented with various stimuli, including a white rat, a rabbit and some cotton wool. He showed no fear reaction to any stimuli. A fear reaction was then induced into Albert by sticking a steel bar with a hammer behind his head. This startled Albert, making him cry. He was then given a white rat to play with, of which he was not scared. As he reached to touch the rat, the bar and hammer were struck to frighten him. This procedure was repeated 3 times.

Question 45

What is the Conclusion of Albert's study?

Answer 45

Conditioned emotional responses, including love, fear and phobias are acquired as a direct result of environmental experiences, which can transfer and persist, possible indefinitely, unless removed by counter-conditioning

Question 46

What is a Strength of the Behaviourist Approach to Maintaining Phobias

Answer 46

There is research evidence to support that some phobias develop and are maintained by classical and operant conditioning (e.g. Albert's study). This provides evidence that the theory is valid. (COUNTER: it relies on a case study, this is a problem because Albert may have other factors in developing a phobia, this means it may not be generalisable)

Question 47

What are Weaknesses of the Behaviourist Approach to Maintaining Phobias?

Answer 47

1. Sometimes people develop phobia are are not aware of having a bad experience related to it. This suggests that different phobias may be the result of different processes, so the two-process model may not be entirely valid 2. Evolutionary factors probably have an important role to play in phobias, but the 2-process model doesn't mention this (we easily acquire phobias of stimuli that would've been a source of danger in our evolutionary past). This means that the 2-process model is not entirely valid

Question 48

What are the 2 ways of the Behavioural Approach to Treating Phobias?

Answer 48

Flooding and Systematic Desensitisation

Question 49

What is Flooding?

Answer 49

It uses the idea to ger people to associate their phobia with relaxation. Flooding involves a sudden, extreme exposure to the phobic stimulus without any prior build-up or gradual, stage-by-stage approach

Question 50

What are Strengths of Flooding?

Answer 50

1. Flooding is cheap compared to all other forms of phobia therapy, although individual flooding sessions are usually longer than SD sessions, fewer sessions are needed overall, which equals a lower cost to the patient. This is cost effective, which means it has positive economic implications 2. Flooding works well with 'simple,' straightforward phobias, e.g., arachnophobia and acrophobia which means that those needing the therapy can be easily identified

Question 51

What are Weaknesses of Flooding?

Answer 51

1.Flooding can be traumatic for the patient (even though they will have given informed consent prior to the therapy) so it may be ethically compromised 2. Flooding is less effective with more complex phobias, such as social phobias. They involve a variety of different interpersonal interactions dependent on the occasion, this means that this method isn't generalisable to all phobias

Question 52

What is Systematic Desensitisation?

Answer 52

This is counterconditioning and reciprocal inhibition. It's similar to flooding, except that it's designed to gradually expose the patient to the phobic stimulus using an anxiety hierarchy.

Question 53

What are the 3 steps of Systematic Desensitisation?

Answer 53

1. Anxiety Hierarchy: patient and therapist work together to construct an anxiety hierarchy, which is a list of situations that involve the phobic stimulus from least to most frightening 2. Relaxation: breathing exercises help to calm the patient physiologically or visualisation that involves the patient placing themselves, mentally in a relaxing, calming environment 3. Exposure: whilst in a relaxed state the patient is exposed to the phobic stimulus starting at stage 1 of the anxiety hierarchy, then they move up the hierarchy stage by stage, continually checking for signs of panic and slowing down if necessary

Question 54

What is a Strength of Systematic Desensitisation?

Answer 54

SD has research that shows that it's successful for a range of phobic disorders. (75% of patients with phobias respond to SD, and the key to success lies with actual contact (in vivo)). This suggests that it is effective when in vivo techniques are used and so treatment should involve actual contact with the phobic stimulus

Question 55

What are Weaknesses of Systematic Desensitisation?

Answer 55

1. SD does not treat the cause of the phobia, only the behaviour it results in, this inability to address the cause of the phobia means that the phobia may return or another phobia may replace the original phobia. Therefore it has limited usefulness 2. Some patients may struggle to deal with the phobia outside of the therapy sessions, since they may not be able to apply what they have learned to real, everyday situations, particularly without guidance from the therapist. This reduces the external validity of the theory behind the treatment