Research methods Flashcards

Question

What are the Weaknesses of the Matched Pairs design?

Answer 1

1) It is very time consuming and difficult to match the participants on key variables. The researcher would also need to start with a large group or participants to ensure they can obtain matched pairs on key variables 2) Although participant variables are minimized, it is not possible to control for all participant variables because you can only match on variables known to be relevant. It could be that others are important

Answer 2

1) Restrict the number of variables to match on to make it easier 2) Conduct a pilot study to consider key variables for matching

Answer 3

When P's want to be helpful and therefore they pay attention to the clues in the experiment that may guide their behavior. These might indicate the research objectives to participants and can lead participants to change their behaviors or responses based on what they think the research is about.

Answer 4

1) single blind design 2) double blind design 3) experimental realism 4) counterbalancing 5) pilot studies

Answer 5

Any cues (other than the IV) from the investigator that encourage certain behaviors in a participant, and which might lead to a fulfilment of the investigator's expectations. These may include everything from the design of the study, to the instructions given and selection of / interaction with the participants.

Answer 6

Standardized instructions (verbatim format)

Answer 7

In this design, the participant is not aware of the research aims and / or of which condition of the experiment they are receiving

Answer 8

In this design, the participant and the person conducting the experiment are blind to the aim / hypothesis

Answer 9

When the researcher makes the task sufficiently engaging, the participant pays attention to the task and not the fact that they are being observed

Answer 10

When half the participant's in a Repeated Measures Design do some A then B and so do B then A. This means order effects such as boredom and practice effects can be controlled for

Answer 11

Written instructions that are read or read by each participant's in exactly the same way. They must be written in a way that can be read out (verbatim). They also must include a check at the end that the participants have understood what to do

Answer 12

A set of procedures that is written and followed so that each participant experiences the same procedure as much as possible

Answer 13

A small-scale study that is conducted before the larger study to iron out any problems with the design

Answer 14

An experiment (IV manipulated by the researched, DV measured) conducted in a highly controlled environment. Participants are aware they are taking part in an experiment (although they may not know the full aims)

Answer 15

An experiment conducted in a more natural or 'ordinary' environment. As with laboratory experiments, the IV is manipulated by the researcher and the DV is measured. A key feature is that participants are not usually aware that they are participating in the experiment

Answer 16

An experiment when the researcher takes advantage of a pre-existing independent variable. It is usually conducted when it is not possible to deliberately manipulate the IV due to the ethical or practical reasons. (remember that it is the IV that occurs 'naturally'. The DV can still be tested in a controlled setting e.g. a lab))

Answer 17

The key feature is an IV that is not only natural, but has not been made to vary by anyone. It is simply a difference between people that already exists. (e.g. gender, age) The DV can still be tested in a controlled setting

Answer 18

High control of Extraneous Variables, thus high internal validity. We are able t see cause and effect as we can be sure that any effect on the DV is the result of manipulation of the IV

Answer 19

They may lack generalizability. They are often artificial and not like everyday life so cannot always be generalized beyond the research setting (low external validity)

Answer 20

Allows research where the IV cannot be manipulated for practical or ethical reasons

Answer 21

Cannot demonstrate cause and effect as the IV is not directly manipulated

Answer 22

Higher mundane realism than lab experiments as the environment is more natural (+ no demand characteristics)

Answer 23

There are ethical issues. If participants are unaware they are being studied, then they cannot give informed consent and therefore the research may constitute as invasion of privacy

Answer 24

They are often carried out under controlled conditions and therefore share the strengths of lab experiments

Answer 25

Cannot randomly allocate participants to groups (random allocation) so therefore there may be cofounding variables which cannot be controlled, a threat to internal validity

Answer 26

Laboratory Experiment, Field Experiment, Natural Experiment, and Quasi Experiment

Answer 27

Repeated Measures. Independent Groups, and Matched Pairs

Answer 28

"Rules" that psychologists should follow in order to make their investigations as ethical as possible. (these are created by the BPS in their Code of Conduct and Ethical Guidelines)

Answer 29

When Ethical Guidelines are broken, and they are problems that cause investigations to be unethical

Answer 30

Informed Consent, Deception, Protection from Harm, Confidentiality, Privacy, Right to withdraw, and Debriefing

Answer 31

When participants must be given comprehensive info about the nature and purpose of the research in order to make an educated decision about whether to participate

Answer 32

When a participant is not told the true aims of the study

Answer 33

During a study the participant should not experience any negative physical or psychological effects

Answer 34

The communication of personal information from one person to another

Answer 35

A person's right to control the flow of information about themselves

Answer 36

Participants can stop participating in the study at any point. They also have the right to refuse permission for the data to be used

Answer 37

After the study, if the participant has been deceived, they have the right to know the true aim of the study

Answer 38

If you can't ask your participants if they are happy to take part in the study, you ask similar people if they would be (having told them all about the study). If they agree that they would be, you presume your real participants would agree too

Answer 39

If you can't get informed consent at the beginning of the study, you ask them at the end and ask them whether they agree to participate then

Answer 40

When you tell people that you may be studying them at different times and ask if they generally agree to be a participant

Answer 41

When you judge the costs of doing the study/research against the benefits (cost could also mean potential harm to participants)

Answer 42

A Population is an entire group with specified characteristics

Answer 43

Representative is a sample closely matched to the target population as a whole.

Answer 44

Random Sampling, Opportunity Sampling, Volunteer Sampling, Systematic Sampling, and Stratified Sampling

Answer 45

A sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen. This involves identifying everyone in the target population and then selecting the number of participants you need in a way that gives everyone in the population an equal chance of being picked

Answer 46

The sampling technique most used by psychology students. It consists of taking the sample from people who are available and convenient at the time the study is carried out and fit the criteria you are looking for

Answer 47

This sampling technique consists of participants becoming part of a study because they volunteer when asked or in response to an advert

Answer 48

This is when every "nth" member of the target population is selected. A sampling frame is produced, which is a list of people in the target population organised into alphabetical order. A sampling system is nominated (every 3rd or 6th person for example) or at a random interval to prevent bias

Answer 49

A sample in which every member pf the population has an equal chance of being chosen. This involved identifying everyone in the target population and then selecting the number of participants you need in a way that gives everyone in the population an equal chance of being picked

Answer 50

A small-scale trial run of a research design before doing the real thing. It is done to find out if certain aspects of the design do or don't work

Answer 51

1) Check that participants understand the instructions 2) Whether the materials are clear (e.g. photos, videos are of good enough quality) 3) Whether the questions are clear and interpreted in the same way by all participants 4) Behavioural categories/checklist, timing of observations, where the observers are (how far away to check that they can see and hear what is going on) 5) Ethical Issues - be specific about which ones and what is being tested

Answer 52

No, the results of a pilot stud are irrelevant, the research isn't interested in what results are produces, they want to see to what extent the procedures need fine tuning

Answer 53

Results that can be counted, usually given as numbers

Answer 54

Results that are expressed in words and non-numerical. They may take the form of a written description of thoughts, feelings, and opinions of participants, or a written account of what the researcher saw in an observation.

Answer 55

1) It is easy to analyse using descriptive statistics and statistical tests as it is numerical. This means the data is easy to draw accurate conclusions from 2) The data is objective meaning that it is accurate as it cannot be misinterpreted or affected by bias. This is useful as it means it is less affected by social desirability bias

Answer 56

It may oversimplify reality (e.g. a questionnaire with closed questions may force a participant to choose an answer that doesn't reflect how they feel and therefore the data may be less accurate)

Answer 57

1) It gives rich detailed data about people's experiences meaning that we can better understand nuances in behaviour. This is useful as the data is more likely to provide conclusions that better reflect the persons behaviour 2) It can provide unexpected insights meaning we can better understand individual differences in people's behaviour and provided individual therapies/treatments or insights

Answer 58

It's complexity makes it difficult to analyse and draw conclusions. as it is difficult to analyse the data in an unbiased way and could easily be misinterpreted. This reduced the validity of the study

Answer 59

Nominal, Ordinal, and Interval Data

Answer 60

Data that are in separated categories such as grouping people according to their favourite football team or food

Answer 61

Data that are ordered in some way (e.g. asking people to put a list of foods in order of preference) The 'difference' between each item is not the same, i.e. the individual may like the first item a lot more than the second, but there is only a little difference between the third and fourth item on the list

Answer 62

Data that are measured using units of equal intervals, such as when counting correct answers or s=using any public unit of measurement (e.g. cm, km, g)

Answer 63

They tell us about the central (middle) values for a set of data. They are 'averages' i.e. ways of calculating typical values of a set of data

Answer 64

Mean (Arithmetic Mean), Median, and Mode

Answer 65

It is calculated by adding up all of the numbers and diving them by the number of numbers you have. It can only be used with interval level quantitative data

Answer 66

The middle value in an ordered list. If there are 2 central values, the median is calculated by adding those 2 items and dividing by 2. The median can be used with INTERVAL and ORDINAL quantitative data

Answer 67

The most common data item. With NOMINAL quantitative data, this is the category that has the highest frequency count. With INTERVAL and ORDINAL data, it's the data item that occurs the most frequently. If 2 categories or data items have the same frequency, the data have 2 modes (bi-modal)

Answer 68

They tell us how dispersed or spread out the data items are

Answer 69

Range and Standard Deviation

Answer 70

The arithmetic distance between the top and bottom values in a data set. It's customary to then add one because the bottom value could be up to 0.5 less and the top value could be up to 0.5 less than reported

Answer 71

A more precise way of measuring the spread of data. It is a measure of the average distance between each data item above and below the mean. Ideally, you want the standard deviation to be as low as possible (which shows you that the numbers are close the the mean i.e. low spread of data)

Answer 72

It's the most sensitive measure of central tendency as to takes into account he exact distance between all of the values of the data. This means it is more representative of the data as a whole

Answer 73

The sensitivity of this measure of central tendency can be distorted by one (or a few) extreme values and thus end up being misrepresentative of the data as a whole

Answer 74

This measure of central tendency is appropriate for ORDINAL data and is easier to calculate than the mean

Answer 75

This is not as sensitive a measure of central tendency because the exact values are not reflected in the middle value

Answer 76

This measure of central tendency is not affected by the extreme scores so can be useful under such circumstances

Answer 77

This measure of central tendency is the easiest to calculate but is a very crude measure. It can end up being very different from the median and mean and so not really representative of the data as a whole

Answer 78

This measure of dispersion is easy to calculate

Answer 79

This measure of dispersion is affected by extreme values because it only takes into account 2 values. Therefore it may be misrepresentative of the data as a whole

Answer 80

This is a precise measure of dispersion because it takes all of the exact values into account, and so is more likely to be representative of the data as a whole.

Answer 81

This measure of dispersion may be distorted by a single extreme value as all of the data are taken into account. Therefore it may end up being unrepresentative of the data set as a whole

Answer 82

Bar Chart, Histogram, Line Graph, and Scattergram

Answer 83

Like a Histogram, there has to be continuous data on the x-axis for this to be used. The y-axis should be frequency and a cross is places to the middle of where the top of the bar would be. The points are then joined up

Answer 84

In this graph, the bars touch each other which shows that data is continuous rather than discrete like in a bar chart. The x-axis is made up of equal sized intervals of a single category (e.g. percentage scores in a math test broken down into intervals such as 0-9%, 10-19%, 20-29% etc.) The y-axis represents the frequency within each interval. If there was a zero frequency for one of the intervals, the interval remains but without a bar

Answer 85

These Charts are used for discrete data (data in separate categories) The Independent variable goes on the x-axis, and the dependent variable on the y-axis. These Charts are also used where your dependent variable is nominal (on x-axis) and frequency would go on the y-axis

Answer 86

These are used for correlations (relationships). As it is a correlation, there is no independent or dependent variable, only co-variables. Therefore, it doesn't matter which variable goes on each axis. *(do NOT join up the dots)

Answer 87

When we plot the frequency on a histogram for large sets of data, and we can see an overall pattern of data

Answer 88

Normal distributions, Positively Skewed distributions, and Negatively Skewed distributions

Answer 89

If you measure certain variables (e.g. height), the frequency of these variables should form what is known as a bell curse, this means the data is normally distributed. Within this, the majority of the people are in the middle section of the curve, and the mean, median and mode are all at the same mid-point

Answer 90

This is when most of the scores are bunched towards the right. The mode is to the right of the mean because the mean is affected by the extreme scores tailing off to the left. This might occur if marks were plotted fir an exam which was very easy so that most people got a very high score

Answer 91

This is when most of the scores are bunched towards the left. For example, the test of depression where 0 represents "normal" behaviour and 50 represents clinical depression. The fact that there are a few high score ahs a strong effect on the mean, which is always higher than the median and mode

Answer 92

A Self-Report Technique is a non-experimental way of collecting data by asking participants to report on their own thoughts/feelings. This method includes both questionnaires and interviews

Answer 93

Closed questions, Open Questions, Likert-style questions, and Rank Questions

Answer 94

Questions which have a range of answers from which respondents select one. They produce quantitative data

Answer 95

Questions that invite the respondents to provide their own answers. They tend to produce qualitative data

Answer 96

Questions using statements with 5 choices from strongly agree to strongly disagree

Answer 97

Questions with points either in order or that could be put in order

Answer 98

1) So that they are easy to analyse (closed questions are the easiest) 2) So that they are free from bias - as this may lead to demand characteristics (avoid emotive language) 3) So they are clear and unambiguous (avoid double negatives and two part answers) (questionnaires should also have filler questions to distract participants from the aim of the study)

Answer 99

1) Respondents can expand on their answers which increases the amount of detail of information collected 2) It allows unexpected answers, which give researches new insights into people's thoughts, feelings and attitudes

Answer 100

1) Most respondents will avoid giving long answers, potentially due to fatigue or boredom effects. Therefore often the researchers do not get detailed data 2) They produce qualitative data which is difficult to analyse without bias and subjectivity, meaning its difficult to draw conclusions

Answer 101

Closed questions have a limited range of answers and produce quantitative data, which means the answers are easier to analyse using graphs and measures such as the mean

Answer 102

1) Respondents may be forced to select answers that don't represent their real thoughts or behaviours. This means the data may lack validity 2) Participants may select "I don't know" and therefore the data collected is not informative

Answer 103

Structured, Semi-Structured, and Unstructured

Answer 104

This technique has pre-determined question, in other words it is essentially a questionnaire that is delivered verbally, with no deviation from the original questions

Answer 105

This technique has some pre-determined questions but they may ask extra extension questions to get detail where they feel there is not enough, or to ask something which they had no predicted would come up

Answer 106

This technique has one main question or couple of smaller questions that need answering, but the responses of the individual lead to the researcher coming up with new questions to ask. These questions could be different for every participant

Answer 107

1) Location of the interview 2) Oder in which questions are asked 3) Maintaining Confidentiality 4) Recording the interview (taking notes, audio, or video recording) 5) The effect of the interviewer (non-verbal communication, listening and questioning skills)

Answer 108

A structured interview is easy to repeat as the questions are standardised. This means the answers are easy to compare and draw conclusions from. It also means that we can therefore repeat the study again to see if the results are reliable

Answer 109

It often leads to a lack of detail, the information is limited because the questions tend to be more likely closed. If someone gives an unusual answer, the researcher is not able to ask more questions about this. This means it may be less valid data, as the restrictive questions mean the answers may not reflect the participant's true behaviour

Answer 110

They are comparable, have reliable data, and also have the flexibility to ask follow-up questions.

Answer 111

The flexibility of semi-structured interviews can also lessen their validity. It can be challenging to compare responses between participants, depending how far the interviewer departed from the predetermined list of questions.

Answer 112

They are less formal, more open-ended, flexible and free flowing than structured interviews.

Answer 113

1) The problem of 'interview bias's - the tone, facial expression, gender, age and posture of the interviews may significantly influence responses. 2) Unstructured Interviews require training in order to be completed effectively. This is because the interview needs to tailor the answers to the response, whilst ensuring clarity and precision of the question. This means the questions may be poor and therefore lack objectivity. equally, there is an economic cost to this

Answer 114

They provide valuable insights into people’s experiences, attitudes, and perceptions. Questionnaires allow efficient data collection but may lack depth, while structured interviews offer consistency and reliability with limited flexibility

Answer 115

Self Report techniques often lead to social desirability bias. Participants may say they behave in a particular way but without observations, we cannot be sure that they will definitely react like this. Equally, participants may feel they're being judged on the answers they give, as they are giving responses directly to the researcher. This means they may not give truthful answers

Answer 116

Naturalistic, Controlled, Overt, Covert, Participant, and Non-Participant

Answer 117

An observation carried out in an everyday setting, in which the investigator does not interfere in anyway, but just observes

Answer 118

It gives the realistic idea of how people behave in real life situations, therefore increasing the ecological validity

Answer 119

There is less control over behaviour, because other people or things can happen which cannot be controlled for, lowering the internal validity of the study

Answer 120

An observation where behaviour is observed by under conditions where certain variables have been organised by the researcher

Answer 121

The study allows for a high level of control, because it can focus on a particular aspect of behaviour in a more precise way

Answer 122

The high level of control in the study can lead to the observation feeling unnatural, meaning participants are more likely to show demand characteristics

Answer 123

An observation where the participant knows they are being studied

Answer 124

They allow researchers to gain informed consent from participants, meaning the study is ethical

Answer 125

The participants may often act differently to how they would if they weren't being observed, as they might try to show themselves in the best light (social desirability bias)

Answer 126

An Observation where people are unaware that they are being studied

Answer 127

It produces more natural behaviours as participants do not feel a pressure from the observer to act in a certain way, reducing the chance of investigator effects playing a role

Answer 128

They are unethical as participants aren't informed that they're being studied and can often be difficult to collect consent afterwards, especially if they're in a natural environment

Answer 129

An observation made by someone who is participating in the activity being observed

Answer 130

It can allow you to get more in depth information on your participants' behaviour, if it is covert, it means that the data collected is more likely to be valid

Answer 131

They can have ethical issues, because they are covert as well, or the participants know you are taking part and therefore are more likely to show demand characteristics

Answer 132

An observer who is separate from the people being observed

Answer 133

This type of observation is more likely to be objective as the researcher is not involved with the group, so is able to see the behaviour from an outsider's perspective

Answer 134

Being able to see from an outsider's perspective also means that you do not get the participant's insight as you are not involved with the participant's activities/ part of the group

Answer 135

Time Sampling and Event Sampling

Answer 136

Recording behaviour within a pre-established time frame (e.g. in a football match we may be interested in one particular player so make a note (using the behavioural checklist) of what the target individual is doing every 30 seconds)

Answer 137

Concentrating on specific types of behaviour "the event" (fight, smile etc) is recorded each time it occurs within a certain time period. (e.g. measuring dissent at football match would involve counting the number of times a player argues with the referee)

Answer 138

Researcher record all relevant behaviour but has no system (they use continuous recording of behaviour)

Answer 139

Behaviour won't be missed outside of time frames because you are always watching for behaviours

Answer 140

If too many observations happen at once, it may be difficult to record everything

Answer 141

Observer has time to record what they have seen

Answer 142

Some behaviours will be missed outside the intervals-observations may not be representative

Answer 143

A technique for systematically analysing various kinds of qualitative data (e.g. texts, emails, films, and other media) The data can be placed into categories and counted (quantitative) or can be analysed in themes (qualitative). It is an indirect form of observation

Answer 144

1) Choose the sample (e.g. media) 2) Choose sampling method (time/event) 3) Watch/read the sample that you have, and identify potential categories which have emerged from the data 4) The 2 psychologists should then compare the categories and use the ones they have both agreed on 5) Give examples of what the categories that they would be looking for 6) They both should carry out the content analysis separately 7) The psychologists should then compare results to look for agreement and use an appropriate statistical test to analyse the reliability of their results

Answer 145

Inter-rater reliability and Test-retest reliability

Answer 146

When the two psychologists could carry out the content analysis of the films separately (they watch the clips and create the categories separately, agree on them and then do the analysis separately) and compare their answers looking for agreement (correlation of +0.8=reliable)

Answer 147

The psychologist could conduct the content analysis (including watching the clips and creating the categories) and then recode them (create the categories again etc.) at a later date and compare the two sets of data looking for agreement (correlation of +0.8 = reliable)

Answer 148

Another way of analysing qualitative data, by analysing theme which appear in the material

Answer 149

1) Watch/read the sample 2) Identify potential implicit or explicit themes/ideas (emergent themes) 3) Collect a new set of data to test the validity of the themes 4) Write a final report of the data (qualitative data)

Answer 150

Offers a method to analyse a variety of forms of data including media and self-report methods so that insights into cultural trends and experiences can be understood.

Answer 151

The identification of suitable themes and codes is subjective and decided by the researcher alone, meaning that conclusions lack any scrutiny or objectivity

Answer 152

1) Unlike content analysis, the level of detail is maintained. 2) Objectivity is possible. (This is done through triangulation, which involves comparing other sources of data (like previous interviews) to verify the conclusions drawn.)

Answer 153

1) It can be difficult at first to establish the themes and categories. 2) Subjectivity can come into play when deciding how certain statements fit into these categories. 3) It can be time-consuming to comb through a vast amount of text.

Answer 154

The combination of different techniques and methods (both quantitative and qualitative) to gather data). It ensures the validity of the research.

Answer 155

An in-depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, small group, institution or an event. (they tend to take place over a long period of time (longitudinal)). They are studied using Triangulation too.

Answer 156

1) Case studies create opportunities for a rich yield of data, and the depth of analysis can in turn bring high levels of validity (i.e. providing an accurate and exhaustive measure of what the study is hoping to measure). 2) The detail collected on a single case may lead to interesting findings that conflict with current theories, and stimulate new paths for research.

Answer 157

1) There is little control over a number of variables involved in a case study, so it is difficult to confidently establish any causal relationships between variables. 2) Case studies are unusual by nature, so will have poor reliability as replicating them exactly will be unlikely. 3) Due to the small sample size, it is unlikely that findings from a case study alone can be generalised to a whole population

Answer 158

A non-experimental type of research method

Answer 159

When there's an increase in one variable is associated with an increase in the other

Answer 160

When there's an increase in one correlation tends to be associated with a decrease in the other

Answer 161

It occurs when there is no relationship between the variables

Answer 162

Coefficients are a more accurate measure of the extent of correlation that exists between variables. They're always a number between -1 and +1

Answer 163

It predicts one particular outcome, used when there is previous research suggesting this result (e.g. there is a positive correlation between height (feet) and weight (kg))

Answer 164

It predicts something will happen but no particular outcome, used when there is no previous research or the previous research conflicts (e.g. there is a correlation between height (feet) and weight (kg))

Answer 165

It predicts nothing will happen (e.g. there is no correlation between height (feet) and weight (kg))

Answer 166

1) Correlations are very useful as a preliminary research technique, allowing researchers to identify a link that can be further investigated through more controlled research. 2) Can be used to research topics that are sensitive/ otherwise would be unethical, as no deliberate manipulation of variables is required.

Answer 167

1) Correlations only identify a link; they do not identify the cause and effect. There might be a third variable present which is influencing one of the co-variables, which is not considered.

Research methods Flashcards

(192 cards)