Psychopathology Flashcards
(99 cards)
1
Q
What is Ellis’s cognitive explanation of depression (1962)?
A
- Irrational thinking is the root cause of maintaining a depressed state
- Ellis sees activating as the trigger for depressive episodes
2
Q
What are the behavioural characteristics associated with depression?
A
- Lethargy
- Aggression and self-harm
- Loss of libido
- Change in sleeping patterns
- Withdrawal from work, school and social aspects
- Disruption to eating patterns
- Reduced activity
3
Q
What are the emotional characteristics associated with depression?
A
- Loss of feeling of pleasure
- Social confidence loss
- Empty feeling
- Irritability
- Aggression
- Lowered mood
- Anger
- Lowered self esteem
4
Q
What are the cognitive characteristics associated with depression?
A
- Hypochondria
- Absolute thinking
- Memory impairment
- Highly repetitive negative thinking
- Concentration difficulties
5
Q
How do Beck and Ellis’s theories compare?
A
Beck: Causes occur during childhood Phase one - negative triad Phase two - automatic negative thoughts and negative behaviours Phase three - a triggering event occurs Ellis: Causes occur after an event Phase one - activating events Phase two - beliefs/irrational thoughts Phase three – consequences
6
Q
What evidence is there for depression?
A
Grazioli and Terry (2000) assessed 65 pregnant women for cognitive vulnerability and depression before and after birth. They found that women judged to have been high in cognitive vulnerability were more likely to suffer post-natal depression.
Clark and Beck (1999) reviewed research and concluded that there was solid support. Critically, these cognitions can be seen before depression develops, suggesting that Beck may be right about cognition causing depression.
7
Q
What is critical evidence for Ellis’s theory?
A
- It only applies to some kinds of depression because depression is different for different people
- It doesn’t explain the anger associated with depression, and it doesn’t explain why people have hallucinations and delusions
8
Q
What is supporting evidence for Ellis’s theory?
A
It has led to successful therapy
9
Q
What are consequences?
A
Activating event triggers irrational belief. This produces emotional and behavioural consequences.
10
Q
What are activating events?
A
Irrational thoughts triggered by external events
11
Q
What are the key aspects of Ellis’s theory?
A
- Activating events
- Beliefs and emotions
- Consequences
12
Q
What are beliefs?
A
A range of irrational beliefs
13
Q
What are the features of cognitive behaviour therapy?
A
- 20 sessions over 16 weeks
- It teaches clients to think and challenge their negative thoughts and perceptions
14
Q
What are the key aspects/features of cognitive behaviour therapy?
A
- Behavioural activation
- Graded task assignment
- Negative thought capturing
15
Q
What is behavioural activation?
A
- Clients discuss activities that give pleasure
- They investigate the barriers to engaging with these activities
16
Q
What is graded task assignment?
A
- Clients develop goals which are increasingly demanding to complete for homework
- Aim to test reality of negative beliefs e.g. record enjoying an event
17
Q
What is negative thought capturing?
A
- Recognising and challenging negative/irrational thoughts
- The therapist actively challenges
- It helps the client to develop more rational thoughts
18
Q
What are the stages of Ellis’s rational emotive behaviour therapy?
A
A - Activating events B - Beliefs and emotions C - Consequences of beliefs D - Debating and disputing beliefs E - Effective/helpful beliefs F - Functional emotions and behaviours
19
Q
What is the stage of debating and disputing beliefs?
A
- When the patient believes they are permanently unlucky
- The therapist would challenge as an irrational belief
- Opportunity for vigorous debate
- Provides evidence which contradicts the patients irrational beliefs
20
Q
What is the stage of effective/helpful beliefs?
A
- Challenging and changing the irrational belief, the link between negative life events and depression is broken
- Healthier beliefs can therefore be incorporated
21
Q
What is the stage of functional emotional and behaviours?
A
These beliefs should lead to healthier behaviours which will ensure a greater sense of happiness and well being.
22
Q
What are the two behavioural treatments for phobias?
A
- Flooding
- Systematic desensitisation
23
Q
What is systematic desensitisation?
A
The method whereby counter-conditioning is used to unlearn the maladaptive response to a situation of object, by eliciting another response (relaxation).
24
Q
What are the three critical components to systematic desensitisation?
A
- Anxiety hierarchy
- Relaxation hierarchy
- Exposure
25
What is reciprocal inhabitation?
When one emotion prevents the other (e.g. you can't be relaxed and afraid at the same time)
26
What is the OCD cycle?
Anxiety --> Compulsive behaviour --> Temporary relief --> Obsessive thoughts --> Anxiety
27
What is an evaluation of systematic desensitisation?
One strength of SD comes from research evidence which demonstrates the effectiveness of this treatment for phobias.
McGrath et al (1990) found that 75% of patients with phobias were successfully treated using SD, when using in vivo techniques.
It's a form of treatment and patients report a reduction or absence of their symptoms.
This shows that SD is effective in treating phobias.
28
What is flooding?
When a person is exposed to the most frightening situation immediately
29
What is an evaluation of flooding?
One strength of flooding is it provides a cost effective treatment for phobias.
Research has suggested that flooding is comparable to other treatments, including SD and cognition therapies (Ougrin 2011), however it is significantly different.
In comparison, SD takes a lot longer due to using counter-conditioning to treat phobias.
This is a strength because patients are treated quicker and it is more cost effective for health service providers.
30
What does DSM V mean in terms of phobias?
Diagnostic Statistical Manual
31
What does DSM - 5 recognise in terms of phobias?
- Specific phobias (phobia of an object)
- Social phobias (phobia of a social situation)
- Agoraphobia (phobia of being outside)
32
What are specific phobias?
Phobias of an object such as an animal or body part or a situation like flying or injections
33
What are social phobias?
Phobias of a social situation such as public speaking or using a public toilet
34
What is agoraphobia?
The fear of being outside or in a public place
35
What are examples of specific phobias?
- Arachnophobia (spiders)
| - Claustrophobia (small spaces)
36
What are examples of social phobias?
- Paruresis (public toilets)
| - Glossophobia (fear of speaking)
37
What are the characteristics of phobias?
```
P - Panic
H - High levels of anxiety
O - Out of proportional fear
B - Beliefs which are irrational
I - Irrational fear
A - Avoidance
S - Selective attention
```
38
What are the behavioural characteristics of phobias?
- Avoidance
- Panic
- Endurance
39
What are the emotional characteristics of phobias?
- Anxiety
- Example: Arachnophobia
- Emotional responses are unreasonable
40
What are the cognitive characteristics of phobias?
- Selective attention to the phobic stimulus
- Irrational beliefs
- Cognitive distortions
41
What effective treatments have been produced due to research in psychology?
- Talking therapies
- Medication therapies
- Skills therapies
42
What does the two process model consist of?
- Initiation
| - Maintenance
43
What happens during initiation?
- Classical conditioning
| - Phobias can be learnt by association often involving a traumatic event
44
What happens during maintenance?
- Operant conditioning
| - The ongoing avoidance or involuntary unpleasant physical response reinforces the association
45
What is statistical infrequency?
A behaviour is seen as abnormal if it is statistically uncommon or not seen very often in society. Abnormality is determined by looking at the disruption of a particular behaviour within society.
46
What are the strengths of statistical infrequency?
- Helps to define what level of behaviour counts as 'normal' and 'abnormal'
- It is relatively easy to determine abnormally using psychometric tests developed using statistical methods
- Once people have been diagnosed with help from this they can then get treatment to help them with their condition
47
What are the weaknesses of statistical infrequency?
- Defining people in this manner as abnormal or not has limitations as it doesn't take into account the desirability of the particular behaviour
- Someone having an IQ above or below the average IQ level would be considered abnormal
48
What is deviation from ideal mental health?
When you look at what makes someone 'normal' instead of 'abnormal'.
49
What is a good thing about deviation from ideal mental health?
It makes it clear to people the ways in which they could benefit from seeking treatment to improve their mental health.
50
What is a bad thing about deviation from ideal mental health?
Deviation from ideal mental health is probably of no value in thinking about who might benefit from treatment against their will.
51
What is deviation from social norms?
When you see someone as being away from normal and having acceptable behaviour in society.
52
What is an advantage of deviation from social norms?
Deviation can help social change.
53
What is a disadvantage of deviation from social norms?
An issue with deviation of social norms is cultural relativism.
54
What is failure to function adequately?
A person is considered abnormal if they are unable to cope with the demands of everyday life and live independently in society.
55
What is an advantage of failure to function adequately?
It is considered the subjective personal experiences of the patient. This considers the thoughts and feelings of the person.
56
What are the disadvantages of failure to function adequately?
It stems from individual differences. Someone with OCD may exhibit excessive rituals that prevent them from functioning adequately.
57
What are the behavioural characteristics of OCD?
- Compulsions
| - Avoidance
58
What are two features of compulsions?
1. Compulsions are repetitive
| 2. Compulsions reduce anxiety
59
What does it mean for an OCD sufferer to have a repetitive compulsion?
When OCD suffers feel compelled to repeat a certain behaviour. A common example is hand washing. Another common type of repetitive compulsion would be ordering things such as CDs, DVDs and food storage in a cupboard.
60
What does it mean for an OCD sufferer to have a compulsion that reduces anxiety?
Around 10% of sufferers with OCD show compulsive behaviour alone. However, for the vast majority, compulsive behaviours are performed in an attempt to manage the anxiety produced by obsessions. For example, compulsive hand washing is carried out as a response to an obsessive fear of germs.
61
What is avoidance in terms of OCD?
People with OCD may be characterised by the avoidance as they attempt to reduce anxiety by keeping away from situations that trigger it.
62
What are the emotional characteristics of OCD?
- Anxiety and distress
- Accompanying depression
- Guilt and disgust
63
What is anxiety and distress in terms of OCD?
OCD is regarded as a particularly unpleasant emotional experience because of the anxiety that accompanies both obsessions and compulsions. Obsessive thoughts can be unpleasant and frightening which can cause high levels of anxiety. The urge to repeat a behaviour (a compulsion) creates anxiety.
64
What is accompanying depression in terms of OCD?
OCD is often accompanied by depression, so anxiety can be accompanied by low mood and lack of enjoyment in activities. Compulsive behaviour tends relieve some anxiety but only temporarily.
65
What is guilt and disgust in terms of OCD?
As well as anxiety and depression, OCD sometimes involves other negative emotions such as irrational guilt, for example over minor moral issues or disgust directed as external things such as dirt, or the self.
66
What are the cognitive characteristics of OCD?
- Obsessive thoughts
- Cognitive strategies to deal with obsessions
- Insight into excessive anxiety
67
What are obsessive thoughts in terms of OCD?
For 90% of sufferers, the major feature of their condition is obsessive thoughts (thoughts that reoccur over and over again). Examples of reoccurring thoughts are worries of being contaminated by dirt or germs or that the door has been left unlocked.
68
What are cognitive strategies to deal with obsessions in terms of OCD?
Obsessions are the major cognitive aspect of OCD, but people cope with cognitive strategies. For example, a religious person tormented by obsessive guilt may respond by praying or meditating. This reduces their anxiety but can make them appear as though they are abnormal.
69
What is insight into excessive anxiety in terms of OCD?
People suffering with OCD know that there obsessions and compulsions are not rational. If they believed their obsessive thoughts were based on reality that would be a symptom of a different mental disorder. However, OCD sufferers may experience catastrophic thoughts about the worst case scenarios.
70
What is panic in terms of phobias?
A phobic person may panic in response to the presence of the phobic stimulus. Panic may involve a range of behaviours including crying, screaming or running away.
71
What is avoidance in terms of phobias?
Unless the sufferer is making an attempt to face their phobias, they tend to avoid it for as long as possible. For example, someone with a fear of public toilets may try to avoid going outside the house.
72
What is endurance in terms of phobias?
The alternative to avoidance is endurance, in which a sufferer remains in the presence of the phobic stimulus but continues to experience high levels of anxiety.
73
What is anxiety in terms of phobias?
Phobias are classed as anxiety disorders. They involve an emotional response of anxiety and fear. Anxiety is seen as an unpleasant state of high arousal.
74
What is an example of arachnophobia in terms of phobias?
Anxiety levels increase whenever you enter a place associated with spiders - the fear comes when you see a spider, which is a very strong emotional response directed towards the spider.
75
What are emotional responses that are unreasonable in terms of phobias?
Emotional responses we experience in relation to phobic stimuli go beyond being reasonable. For example, a fear of spiders involves a very strong emotional response to a tiny and harmless spider. This is extremely disproportionate to the danger posed by a spider.
76
What is selective attention to the phobic stimulus in terms of phobias?
If a sufferer can see the phobic stimulus it is hard to look away from it. Keeping our attention on something really dangerous is a good thing as it gives us the best chance of reacting quickly to a threat, but not useful when the fear is irrational.
77
What are irrational beliefs in terms of phobias?
A phobic may hold irrational beliefs in relation to phobic stimuli. For example, social phobias can involve beliefs like 'I must always sound intelligent'. This kind of belief increases the pressure on the sufferer to perform well in social situations.
78
What are cognitive distortions in terms of phobias?
The person with the fear may perceive the fear to be distorted.
79
What are the behavioural characteristics of depression?
- Activity levels
- Disruption to sleep and eating behaviour
- Aggression and self-harm
80
What are the emotional characteristics of depression?
- Lowered mood
- Anger
- Lowered self-esteem
81
What are the cognitive characteristics of depression?
- Poor concentration
- Attending to and dwelling on the negative
- Absolutist thinking
82
What are activity levels in terms of depression?
Sufferers of depression have reduced levels of energy, making them lethargic. This has a knock-on effect, with sufferers tending to withdraw from work, education and social life.
In some cases, depression can lead to the opposite effect - known as psychomotor agitation. Which involves individuals pacing up and down a room.
83
What is disruption to sleep and eating behaviour in terms of depression?
Depression is associated with changes to sleeping behaviour. Sufferers may experience reduced sleep (insomnia) or an increased need to sleep (hypersomnia). Similarly, appetite and eating may increase or decrease, leading to weight gain or loss.
84
What is aggression and self-harm in terms of depression?
Sufferers of depression are often irritable, and in some cases they can become verbally or physically aggressive. This can have serious knock-on effects. For example, someone experiencing depression might display verbal aggression by ending a relationship or quitting a job.
85
What is lowered mood in terms of depression?
Lowered mood is still a defining emotional element of depression but it is more pronounced than in the daily kind of experience of feeling lethargic and sad.
86
What is anger in terms of depression?
Sufferers of depression frequently experience anger, sometimes extreme anger. This can be directed at the self or others. On occasion such emotions lead to aggressive or self-harming behaviour.
87
What is lowered self-esteem in terms of depression?
Self-esteem is the emotional experience of how much we like ourselves. Sufferers of depression tend to report reduced self-esteem (liking themselves less than usual).
88
What is poor concentration in terms of depression?
Sufferers of depression find themselves unable to stick with a task as they usually would. Poor concentration and poor decision making are likely to interfere with the individual's work.
89
What is attending to and dwelling on the negative in terms of depression?
When suffering a depressive episode, people are inclined to pay more attention to negative aspects of a situation and ignore the positivists.
Sufferers also have a bias towards recalling unhappy events rather than happy ones.
90
What is absolutist thinking in terms of depression?
Most situations aren't all good or all bad, but when a sufferer is depressed they tend to think in these terms. This can be referred to as 'black and white thinking'.
91
What are DSM-5 categories of depression?
- Major depressive disorder (severe but often short-term depression)
- Persistent depressive disorder (long-term or recurring depression)
- Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder (childhood temper tantrums)
- Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (disruption to mood prior to and/or during menstruation)
92
What are DSM-5 categories of OCD?
- OCD (characterised by either obsessions and/or compulsions)
- Trichotillomania (compulsive hair pulling)
- Hoarding disorder (compulsive gathering of possessions and the inability to part with anything)
- Excoriation disorder (compulsive skin picking)
93
Abnormality:
| What is the real-life application evaluation point?
A strength of the statistical definition is that it has a real-life application in the diagnosis of intellectual disability disorder. There is therefore a place for statistical infrequency in thinking about what are normal and abnormal behaviours and characteristics. All assessments of patients with mental disorders includes some kind of measurement of how severe their symptoms are as compared to statistical norms. Statistical infrequency is thus a useful part of clinical assessment.
94
Abnormality:
| What is the unusual characteristics can be positive evaluation point?
IQ scores over 130 are just as unusual as those below 70, but we wouldn't think of super-intelligence as an undesirable characteristic that needs treatment. Just because few people display certain behaviours does make the behaviour statistically abnormal but doesn't mean it requires treatment to return to normal. This is a limitation to the concept of statistical infrequency and means that it would never be used alone to make a diagnosis.
95
Abnormality:
| What is the not everyone unusual benefits from a label evaluation point?
Another problem with statistical infrequency is that, where someone is living a happy fulfilled life, there is no benefit to them being labelled as abnormal regardless of how unusual they are. So someone with a very low IQ but who was not distressed, quite capable of working would simply not need a diagnosis of intellectual disability. If that person was 'labelled' as abnormal this might have a negative effect on the way others view them and the way they view themselves.
96
Abnormality:
| What is the not a sole explanation evaluation point?
A strength of the deviation from social norms definition is that it has a real-life application in the diagnosis of antisocial personality disorder. There is therefore a place for deviation from social norms in thinking about what is normal and abnormal. However, even in this case there are other factors to consider, for example the distress to other people resulting from antisocial personality disorder. So, deviation from social norms is never the sole reason for defining abnormality.
97
Abnormality:
| What is the cultural relativism evaluation point?
Another problem with using deviation from social norms to define behaviour as abnormal is that social norms vary from one community to another. This means, for example, that a person from one cultural group may label someone from another culture as behaving abnormally according to their standards. For example, hearing voices is socially acceptable in some cultures but would be seen as a sign of mental abnormality in the UK. This creates problems for people from one culture living within another culture group.
98
Abnormality:
| What can lead to human rights abuses evaluation point?
Too much reliance on deviation from social norms to understand abnormality can also lead to systematic abuse of human rights. Looking at the historical examples of deviation from social norms, it's clear that diagnoses were there to maintain control over minority ethnic groups and women. Nowadays, this wouldn't be the case because social norms have changed.
99
Abnormality:
| What is the social versus statistical norms evaluation point?
One strength of the deviation from social norms approach is that it includes the issue of the desirability of a behaviour. The statistical infrequency approach doesn't take desirability into account. For example, genius is statistically abnormal but including that in the definition wouldn't be good. This means that social norms can be more useful than statistical norms.
