Quiz 1 Flashcards
(150 cards)
1
Q
What is the average age for onset of anxiety and depression?
A
Anxiety - 6 Depression - 13
2
Q
What has happened in the number of reports of anxiety and depression in young people from 1986 -> 2006
A
Doubled across girls and boys
3
Q
What % of the young and adult population are either overweight or obese?
A
Young - between 25-30% Adult - 65%
4
Q
What is one of the primary drivers of systemic inflammation?
A
Excess adipose tissue, particularly around the guts
5
Q
What did Jacka et al. 2010 find an increase in a Western diet (junk and processed foods) led to in terms of psychological outcomes, for women?
A
For each SD increase in Western diet -> increase in the odds ratios for the mood disorders: major depression and dysthymia and bipolar disorder, but not anxiety.
6
Q
What did Jacka et al. 2010 find an increase in a traditional diet (vegetables, fruit, beef, lamb, wholegrains, fish) led to in terms of psychological outcomes, for women?
A
Increased traditional diet = decreased MDD/dysthymia, bipolar and anxiety
7
Q
What kind of specific diet has been shown to improve mood, energy, vigour and contentment?
A
10-day Mediterranean diet
8
Q
Are trans-fats linked to depression?
A
Strongly linked to depression
Also, fast foods etc associated with approx 40% increase risk of new depression over time
9
Q
What are the 4 major types of food that have been found to have a positive or negative impact on well being?
A
Sugar
Carbs
Omega-3
Fermented Foods
10
Q
How much sugar does the average person consume per week? How much is recommended?
A
1.36kg (more than 200g / day) No more than 25g / day
11
Q
What 2 areas of the brain can excess sugar shrink?
A
- Areas responsible for memory
- Areas responsible for mood regulation eg: hippocampus
12
Q
What is the link between sugary drinks and depression?
A
For every sugary drink consumed, odds of reporting greater depressive symptoms increased by 5%
Association stronger in women than in men.
13
Q
What psychological disorder has excess sugar consumption been linked to?
A
Major depression
14
Q
In what ways do carbohydrates impact well being?
A
- Enhance mood in individuals with obesity, premenstrual syndrome, and seasonal affective disorder (versus protein-based diets)
- Reduce anxiety, anger, and depression
15
Q
Which fatty acids does Omega-3 refer to?
A
ALA, EPA and DHA
16
Q
In what ways does omega-3 impact well being?
A
- Link between depression and low omega-3 fatty acids (drawn from seafood)
- Linked with neuronal growth, delay of dementia, enhanced mood, and reduced heart disease.
17
Q
What does recent research say on the benefits of fish oil supplements?
A
Mixed results:
- may be benefits to taking fish oil supplements alongside anti-depressant medication in treating MDD, particularly for supplements that are high in EPA
- no significant reduction in both fatal or non-fatal cardiovascular disease
18
Q
What is the association between fermented food consumption and social anxiety and depression?
A
Greater consumption of fermented foods was associated with fewer symptoms of social anxiety (correlational design rather than an experimental trial).
Possible link between healthy gut bacteria and lower depression
19
Q
Eating vegetables, fruits, legumes, cereals, and fish, with a moderate intake of wine during meals, may significantly reduce what?
A
- Overall mortality,
- Cardiovascular mortality,
- Cancer incidence and mortality,
- Incidence of Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s.
20
Q
What are the 9 aspects associated with food choices?
A
Health
Mood
Convenience
Sensory Appeal
Natural Content
Price
Weight Control
Familiarity
Ethical Concern
21
Q
What are the five basic tastes?
A
sweet,
sour,
bitter,
salty, and
umami
22
Q
What is the link between coffee and depression?
A
One study found women who drank coffee had a 20% lower risk of depression
23
Q
What did Dawkins (2011) find regarding the placebo effect of coffee?
A
In a 2x2 experimental study, participants were allocated to a drink type (caffeinated/decaf) and expectancy (told coffee was caffeinated/told coffee was decaf) condition. Results found that both consuming caffeine and expecting to have consumed caffeine enhanced attention and psychomotor speed.
24
Q
What are some of the benefits of eating chocolate?
A
- Consumed chocolate daily during pregnancy -> improved child temperament
- Increased wellbeing among men who reported eating chocolate versus other sweets
- Enhanced cognition, reduced cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease in elderly people who consumed 100g of dark choc / day
- Lower blood pressure, blood sugar and cortisol, improved cellular processing of sugar
25
Which component of chocolate is said to cause it beneficial effects?
Anandamides - which activate the same brain sites as cannabis
Phenylethylamine (which is similar to amphetamine)
Polyphenols (which account for increase blood flow to the brain, reduced neuron damage after stroke, and protection against dementia)
26
What is meant by the boomerang effect of chocolate?
Consumption can be followed by feelings of guilt or regret
27
What % of our brain is made up of fat?
60% and is an essential component of all our cell membranes.
28
What is the link between DHA and the brain?
Very concentrated in the brain.
Plays a structural role, and transmission of chemicals that influence our learning, our mood and our behaviour.
29
What is zinc important for?
Learning and memory,
Low levels may contribute to depression and mental illness
30
How is magnesium linked to brain functioning?
Nervous system regulation, protein synthesis and making new neural connections . It is also great for reducing stress and can assist with sleep .
31
What are the WHO guidelines around physical activity? What % of people are meeting this guideline?
Adults btw 18-64 -\> at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity each week, or 75 minutes of high-intensity physical activity (or a combination of both). Almost 45 percent of the adult Australian population are NOT meeting these guidelines.
32
Benefits of exercise?
Cardiovascular + Strength Training = decreased depressive symptoms and decreased anxiety
Meta meta-analysis found moderate effect of physical activity in reducing depression and a small effect of physical activity in reducing anxiety
33
Explain the circular relationship around exercise + mental health
Experiencing depressive symptoms reduces motivation to exercise, which in turn, exacerbates depressive symptoms.
Those with depression and/or anxiety reported lower participation in sports and lower engagement in physical activity and greater severity of symptoms at any time point was related to lower physical activity engagement at a two-year follow-up.
In the opposite direction, only low sports participation (as opposed to general physical activity) was associated with greater symptom severity and increased odds of depression and/or anxiety at follow-up.
34
What personality traits are associated with lower physical activity?
Traits that lower extraversion and conscientiousness, as well as higher neuroticism.
These traits have also been linked to anxiety + depression.
35
What neurotransmitters are associated with physical activity?
Endorphins, serotonin, and dopamine
36
What did Ho et al find mediated the relationship between physical activity and mental health in a sample of Chinese adolescents?
Resilience
37
What did Hegberg & Tone find regarding trait anxiety and physical activity?
Exercise is positively associated with self-perceived dispositional resilience among those with high trait anxiety. As such, for those at risk for mental health problems, PA may facilitate resilience and reduce the likelihood of developing stress-related symptoms or disorders.
Sig interaction btw trait anxiety and physical activity (PA), such that PA and self-perceived resilience were significantly and positively associated among individuals with high trait anxiety, but not among individuals with low and moderate trait anxiety.
38
What are the 3 reasons Suzuki gives for the transformative effects of exercise?
1. It has immediate effects on your brain (increase in dopamine, seretonin & noradrenaline -\> increase in mood)
2. Improves ability to shift and focus attention
3. Improves reaction times
39
According to Suzuki, how does exercise effect the hippocampus and pre-frontal cortex?
Produces new brain cells that increase volume of hippocampus and improves long term memory
Improved attention function dependent on pre-frontal cortex
Long lasting increasing in good mood neurotransmitters
Protective effects on your brain
40
Suzuki: mimimum amount of exercise?
3-4 sessions / week of mimimum 30 mins aerobic
41
What is the current trend in eating disorder in the West vs in Asia, the Middle East, and among Hispanics and Africans in North America?
- In the West, the incidence of anorexia nervosa seems to be stabilising
- In other parts of the world, eating disorders appear to be on the rise
42
What can exposure to fitspiration lead to?
Negative mood, body dissatisfaction, and lower appearance-based self-esteem
43
Women who regularly posted "fitspiration" were at greater risk for what?
Eating disorders and compulsive exercise compared to those who regularly posted travel images
44
What are some limitations in Hegberg & Tone's study on resilience and physical activity?
1. Assessed all variables concurrently; thus cannot identify causal links between PA and resilience
2. Undergrad sample therefore maybe not representative of population
3. Average trait anxiety in sample exceeded standard clinical thresholds, not clear whether findings translate to individuals with anxiety disorders
4. Self-report measures
45
What is the theory of planned behaviour?
(TPB, Ajzen, 1985) Social-cognitive theory used to predict behaviour by linking it to an individual’s attitudes and beliefs. An extension of Ajzen and Fishbein’s (1980) Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), which argues that a person’s intention to perform a behaviour is a direct antecedent to behaviour, and intention is said to be determined by attitudes and subjective norms
46
What are the 3 components of TPB?
Behavioural intentions
Attitudes - Note that it is the attitude towards behaviour, not attitude towards an object.
Subjective norms - the perceived social pressure from social networks to engage in the behaviour
47
What is one criticism of the theory of reasoned action?
There is a lot of variability regarding the extent to some behaviours are under our own control. So Ajzen introduced PBC - Perceived Behavioural Control.
48
What is PBC?
Perceived Behavioural Control. Refers to the extent to which people believe the behaviour in question is easy or difficult for them to perform.
PBC is also used as a two-dimensional construct comprising self-efficacy (i.e. the extent to which performance of the behaviour is perceived as easy or difficult for the individual) and perceived control (i.e. the extent to which the individuals perceive the performance of the behaviours to be within his or her control).
49
What does the Theory of Planned Behvioural postulate?
That attitudes, subjective norms and PBC predict behavioural intentions, which, in turn, predict behaviour.
50
What did Armitage and Conner (2001) meta-analysis on TPB find?
TPB constructs (attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control) explained 27% of the variance in behaviour and 39% of the variance in intention.
PBC was found to be a strong predictor of both behaviour and intentions, while subjective norms were found to be the weakest predictor of intentions. Interestingly, self-report methods where participants completed the measures themselves were found to account for an additional 11% of the variance in behaviour than objective or observational methods.
51
What does the Health Belief Model posit?
That a person will engage in positive or preventative health-related behaviours if they:
1. Perceive that a negative health condition can be avoided;
2. Expect that acting will avoid a negative health condition; and
3. Believe that they have the capacity to act to avoid health condition.
52
Specifically, the HBM posits that behaviour can be predicted by a person’s perceptions of four key constructs, what are they?
Perceived susceptibility: the extent to which a person feels they are vulnerable to a health problem.
Perceived severity: a person’s perceptions regarding how harmful the consequences of not engaging in preventative action may be.
Perceived benefits: beliefs regarding the efficacy of the proposed or recommended preventative action.
Perceived barriers: perceived barriers to taking preventative action/measures (i.e., tangible and psychological costs of engaging in preventative action).
53
What are the two variables that were later added to the Health Belief Model?
Cues to action: stimuli needed to activate the decision-making process to take preventative action. These cues can be internal (e.g., shortness of breath, weight gain) or external (e.g., advice from others, illness of family/friends, media reports).
Self-efficacy: an individual’s beliefs about their own ability to take preventative action
54
Which model would this statement fit best with?
The more people believe they are susceptible to a health problem and the more severe they perceive the consequences of not engaging in preventative action, the more likely they are to act to avoid the problem
Health Belief Model
55
Describe the flow of the Health Belief Model
56
What did meta-analyses show on the predictor variables of the Health Benefit Model?
Perceived barriers and perceived benefits were the strongest predictors of behaviour ,
Perceived severity was a significant, but weak predictor.
Perceived susceptibility did not appear to predict behaviour in most of the included analyses
57
What are the similarities and differences btw the TPB and HBM?
Both include attitudes/beliefs as a key construct
Perceived susceptibility is not reflected in TPB, while intentions to engage in behaviour are not reflected in the HBM
58
What are some criticisms of the TPB?
Too rational: the model does not account for the emotional and affective components of human behaviour (Ajzen, 2011).
Measurement issues: constructs of TPB are difficult to measure and rarely show reliability coefficients higher than .80 (Ajzen, 2011). Some of the issues in predicting behaviour may be due to the principle of compatibility being under-utilised. The principle of compatibility maintains that attitudes will best predict behaviour if the specificity of the attitude being measured matches the specificity of the behaviour (Seigel, Navarro, Tan & Hyde, 2014). Seigel and colleagues investigated Ajzen’s argument in the context of organ donation and found that predicting behaviour (i.e., registering as an organ donor) increased by 70% when a specific attitude was measured (e.g., ‘how do you feel about registering as an organ donor) rather than a general measure (e.g., ‘how do you feel about organ donation).
Changing behaviour: TPB has been criticised for not providing guidance on how to change behaviour (Maechan 2011).
59
What are some criticisms of the HBM?
Doesn't consider the emotional or affective components of behaviour. Witte (1992) argues that fear, defined as a negative emotion coupled with a high state of arousal, is an essential part of health-related behaviour.
Testing the full model: Very few studies have tested all components of the HBM, with the cues to action construct most often missing from research.
60
What did Shukri et al. find regarding the roles of work factors (i.e. job demands and job resources), work-family conflicts and culture on predictors of healthy intentions (fruit and vegetable consumption, low-fat diet and physical activity) within the framework of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB)
- Higher job demands were significantly related to lower intentions to eat a low-fat diet.
- Women reported higher intentions to eat a low-fat diet than men did,
- UK participants had lower intentions to engage in physical activity than Malaysia participants.
- The efficacy of TPB variables in explaining intentions was verified, with perceived behavioural control (i.e. self-efficacy), attitudes and descriptive norms combined with past behaviour predictive across the samples.
- Results also suggest the roles of culture and work interference with family variables in moderating TPB–intention relationships and confirm that TPB variables mediate the effects of job demands and job resources on intentions.
61
What are the practical implications of Shukri et al.'s study?
Promote health,
Identify strategies to reduce stress factors;
Specifying important cognitive factors affecting work factors and thus, healthy intentions;
Acknowledging cultural-specific determinants of healthy intentions are recommended.
62
What are the 4 hypotheses associated with Shukri et al's research?
H1a. High job demands will decrease healthy intentions, whereas job resources will increase healthy intentions.
H1b. High 'Work Interferences with Family' (WIF) and high 'Family Interferences with Work' FIW will decrease healthy eating and physical activity intentions.
H2. The TPB constructs (i.e. PBC, attitudes and subjective norms) will be predictive of healthy behaviour intentions and the addition of past behaviour will increase the amounts of variance explained in intentions.
H3. Job demands, job resources, WIF and FIW will moderate TPB–intention relationships.
H4. The effects of job demands, job resources, WIF and FIW on intentions will be mediated by the TPB variables.
H5. Culture will moderate TPB–intention relationships, with people from a collectivistic culture (i.e. Malaysia) being more attentive to social norms(i.e. subjective norms) and people from an individualistic culture (i.e. the United Kingdom) placing more emphasis on personal evaluations (i.e. attitudes and PBC)
63
What were the limitations of Shukri's study on job-related stressors and TPB?
1. Cross-sectional study providing a subjective snapshot of the relationship between variables, therefore not possible to suggest causality.
2. The study used self-report measures. Objective measures would have provided a more truthful indicator.
3. Potential for measurement error
4. Did not establish the extent to which each selected country represented individualistic and collectivistic cultural frameworks.
5. Finally, there may have been selection bias in the samples because of convenience sampling. Thus, the lack of randomization in the selection process of participants affects the generalizability of the study findings.
64
What does the Broaden and Build Theory state? (Fredrickson)
Positive emotions help us broaden awareness and promote novel and varied thoughts and actions, which then help us build skills, resources and resilience against emotional setbacks, and promote psychological growth.
65
What are some of the benefits of positive emotions?
- Increased self-esteem
- Increased optimism
- Enhanced attention
- Cognitive function
- Emotional stability
- Resilience
- Reverse the adverse physiological effects of negative emotions
- Deeper contemplations and broadening of ideas
66
What are the main points of Fredrickson (2013) paper "Learning to self-generate positive emotions"?
- Positive emotions have a range of beneficial correlates including creativity, open and flexible awareness and thinking, negotiation ability among others
- Positive emotions open minds and visual attention (broaden)
- Positive emotions transform lives
- Trait positive affect can change
- Upward spirals counter downward spirals
- Emotional habits can change using the broaden-and-build theory, even in clinical cases
67
Why has most positive emotion research supported the building and broadening theory?
Because most of this research involves experiments with methods that induce low approach positive emotions (eg: giving rewards, watching funny films, recalling fulfilled goals)
68
What kind of positive emotions go against the build and broaden theory, and instead have been shown to narrow attention?
- Positive emotions high in arousal and approach motivation eg: enthusiasm and excitement
- In these cases, the action tendencies are based on the arousal of the CNS, and a disregard of irrelevant and disturbing stimuli thereby narrowing attention and focus
69
What are some benefits of negative emotions?
- Engage more fully in tasks
- Remember events more accurately
- Write more convincing arguments
- Practice more vigorously
- Disregard stereotypes
- Fair evaluation of others
- Increase skepticism and detect deception
- Respond to challenges or threats
70
What are the benefits of fear, disgust, and anger, respectively?
Fear - avoid danger and direct efforts towards conservation
Disgust - Restricts attention to specific features, rather than global patterns
Anger - Readiness to attack, persist with course of action, risk-seeking behaviour
71
How do people usually feel about having mixed emotions?
Though they are common everyday (nostalgia, hope), people tend to find mixed emotions discomforting and want to resolve them
72
What happens when people try to recall times when they had mixed emotions?
They tend to only recall one of the emotions, or both individually, not that they felt mixed
73
Why do many practitioners recommend embracing ambivalent emotions, despite the confusion and discomfort experienced?
The dual action of positive and negative states associated with ambivalent emotions is presumed to facilitate psychological growth
74
Why do ambivalent emotions remain covert, particularly during self-report, despite that they are experienced so often?
Individuals often consider it counterintuitive to experience both positive and negative emotions, so they often select and report one of the two that appears more appropriate at the time.
During this process, individuals switch from an implicit mode of processing emotions to a more explicit and categorical mode, addressing the question "am I feeling positive OR negative?", but not both.
75
What mental health areas have been shown to benefit from yoga in a clinical setting?
In patients with schizophrenia and complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
76
What does body psychotherapy involve?
Using the body as a tool for healing and well-being. May involve body awareness of the precise and subjective consciousness of body sensations arising from stimuli outside of the body (such as through the senses) and inside the body (such as muscles, viscera).
Individuals may learn to use their muscles through resistance exercise training and contraction/relaxation methods
77
What is PMR and what is it used for?
Progressive muscle relaxation
Used in the context of body-based interventions to reduce physiological arousal, lower muscle tension, and manage stress.
Requires the client to repeatedly tense and relax muscles across major muscle groups. This enables the client to isolate and identify these groups and learn to relax them when stressed
78
What is DMT?
Dance Movement Therapy
Requires the client to express their emotions and thoughts through dance, and the role of the therapist is to encourage free expression and interpret the movements.
Defined as "the psychotherapeutic use of movement as a process which furthers the emotional, social, cognitive, and physical integration of the individual
79
What illness has DMT been used with?
Schitzophrenia
Cancer Patients - where the focus is on reconnecting patients to their bodies, especially after invasive treatment
Limited empirical evidence supporting the effectiveness of DMT as a stand-alone therapeutic technique, but observed to be effective as an adjunct to treatment, particularly for therapeutic goals, such as addressing flat mood, lack of drive, social withdrawal, poverty of speech, and loss of feeling and spontaneous movement.
80
What does evidence suggest around benefits of yoga?
Increased perceptions of quality of life and decreased perceived stress
Lower self-reported stress, blood pressure and respiration rate
Better overall mood and vitality
81
What is evolutionary psychology?
Applies theories and principles of evolution (e.g., Darwin’s natural selection, sexual selection) towards understanding the human mind.
Argues that the human mind is influenced by pressure to survive and reproduce and therefore, we can enhance our understanding of psychological processes by studying evolutionary forces
Also conceptualises helpful psychological traits such as memory, intelligence, perception or language as adaptive traits that have evolved through natural selection
82
What is paternity uncertainty?
A problem faced only by males, where they are uncertain whether a child is there's or not. Whereas, females never have to face this problem. Evolutionary link to jealousy in males.
83
What is the sexual over-perception bias?
When males tend to assume incorrectly that women are sexually attracted to them. Linked to stalking
84
How do evolutionary psychologists explain murder?
They explain murder as a form of 'differential reproductive success'. To improve your reproductive success, you can either better yourself, or diminish your competition.
85
What group of people typically murder what other group of people?
Men murdering men
86
What does evolutionary psych tend to focus on?
Things that are highly relevant to reproductive success. So survival problems, and mating problems are absolutely critical.
87
How is evolutionary psych studied?
Lab studies
Questionairres
Paleo archaeological evidence
88
What are the two broad types of traits human have according to evolutionary psych?
Traits that help aid our physical survival (natural selection) and traits that help us to reproduce (sexual selection).
Both by Charles Darwin
89
What two processes are fundamental to sexual selection?
1. Intrasexual competition - occurs when indiv's compete with members of their own sex for the opposite sex. Typically involves males competing for the attention of other females and is said to account for males developing traits that help them compete with other men (e.g., aggression, greater musculature).
2. Intersexual selection - members of one sex attempt to impress members of the other sex. In this process, traits that are considered attractive to the opposite sex (e.g., signs of good fertility and health, intelligence) are passed on to future generations simply because those who possess them are more likely to attract a mate and reproduce.
90
What are some criticisms and challenges for evolutionary psych?
1. Deterministic: It advocates genetic determinism – ie. that our actions, thoughts, and behaviour are all determined by our genes and can't be changed or influenced by external forces such as our education, culture, experiences. However, others argue evolutionary psych simply views genetics as predispositions for our behaviour rather than a cause of it.
2. Politically incorrect or insensitive: eg. used to understand rape and recommend strategies to prevent it, with the authors suggesting that rape may be an adaptive strategy. Providing the perfect excuse for stalkers to justify their behaviour. Evo psychs argued that understanding the factors that may contribute to the behaviour is imperative to prevent it from occurring.
3. Outdated? Considering the substantial socio-political changes that have occurred around the world in recent years, some have questioned how evolutionary psychology is compatible with modern-day society. Eg, how can it account for the increasing number of people who are choosing to remain childless? (Kanazawa, 2014).
4. Testability: Creating testable hypotheses can be problematic, if not impossible. Without testable hypotheses, empirical data cannot be generated, therefore bringing into question whether evolutionary psychology can be regarded as a scientific discipline (Ketelaar & Ellis, 2000). Critics argue that many theories presented by evo psychs are ad-hoc hypotheses, where the explanation for how some particular traits have evolved are not based on evidence outside of their own internal logic.
91
What are some characteristics that both men and women desire in their partners?
- Intelligence
- Kindness
- Understanding
- Healthy
- Similar personality, attitudes, and religious beliefs
92
What things make women attractive to men?
- Youth
- Health and fertility (healthy hair, skin, facial features indicative of high estrogen eg. smooth skin, large eyes, plump lips)
- Waist to hip ratio of 0.7
- Ideal curvature of the spine (wedge-shaped lumbar) for pregnancy
93
What things make men attractive to women?
- High social status
- Financial resources
- Physical formidability
- Masculine facial features
- Willingness to invest in children
- Different immune system (via smell of sweat)
94
What has research found in terms of the effect of the contraceptive pill on female's preferences for male's sweat?
Research has found that when on the contraceptive pill, women prefer the sweat of a man with a more similar immune system. Children of mothers who were on the pill at the time of meeting their partner were more likely to get infections, needed more medical care, experienced more sickness, and were perceived as less healthy in general.
Suggests that women might have mechanisms adapted to mating with men more likely to provide good genes for their offspring and that these preferences can be manipulated hormonally.
95
What is the divorce rate in Australia?
Since 1996 approx 50,000 divorces per year
96
What explanation has been given for the potential correlation between intelligence and marriage prospects?
Female individuals favour partners with higher intelligence, because of intelligent males' greater “fitness” to survive and support the partner and offspring. However, literature is inconclusive about whether intelligence directly attracts mating partners, or merely indirectly attracts them through being correlated with tangible fitness resources, most notably income and social status
97
How would intelligence indirectly affect marriage?
Intelligence is positively associated with tangible fitness indicators such as income and social status symbols (e.g., large car or house), which in turn represent tangible resources for being a good provider. ie. intelligence would affect marriage prospects indirectly via income and social status, due to the empirical correlation between intelligence on one hand, and income and social status on the other
98
How would intelligence directly affect marriage? (Aspara et al.)
May directly appeal to mating partners, independent of income and social status. Different types of intelligence may potentially differ in their effects. For instance, when initiating a romantic relationship, during courtship and other social interactions, easier-to-perceive types of intelligence —such as verbal intelligence and related communication skills —could particularly appeal to mating partners. When it comes to continuing the relationship and staying married, harder-to observe numeric and logical intelligence, which may only be observed over a longer period of time, might become more consequential.
99
What were the findings on Aspara et al.'s study on intelligence and marriage?
Intelligence has a direct positive effect on human mating prospects in terms of marriage.
Even the intangible fitness indicators of verbal, numeric, and logical intelligence can directly influence marriage prospects.
Verbal intelligence found to especially predict the likelihood of getting married, while harder-to-observe numerical and logical intelligence were also found to predict the likelihood to stay married, to an equal extent as verbal intelligence.
Human intelligence, despite being an intangible fitness indicator, directly influences mating prospects, even if it also exerts its influence through the tangible fitness indicators of income and social status symbols.
Findings also overrule the notion that intelligence primarily affects individuals' mating prospects through education. That is, as alternative explanation, intelligent individuals may tend to invest more time in their education career than less intelligent people (cf. Taylor et al., 2005), leading them to get married at an older age, e.g., after education. For this alternative explanation to hold, however, the correlation of intelligence and marriage should have been more pronounced in older age groups. Instead, correlation between intelligence and likelihood to both marry and stay married was more pronounced in younger age groups. Thus, results are consistent with the broader evolutionary theory, suggesting that females as mating partners of males tend to become less demanding of their mates' fitness indicators when approaching the end of fertility age, rather than with the notion of time spent on education. In other words, the stronger correlation between intelligence and marriage likelihood in younger age groups constitutes further evidence of the role of intelligence as an evolutionary fitness indicator influencing human mating in general and males' attractiveness as mating partners in particular.
100
What is a limitation on Aspara's study on intelligence?
All male sample
Therefore, part of the results may be explained by intelligent males' persuasive abilities in getting and staying married, rather than by females' fundamental preferences
101
What is the difference btw blended and step families?
Step - don't have children together
Blended - children together (adopted or biological) and from other relationships
102
What is one of the most critical factors that can effect the success of a blended family?
The age of the children - younger children adjust quicker and more successfully than older children to the new family structure and living arrangements
103
What are some benefits of a blended family?
Decline in the depressive symptoms of children of divorced parents;
Availability of further support and exposure to new experiences within the blended family structure;
Development of more adaptable and tolerant relational patterns for children and adults;
Refinement of emotional resilience; and
An increase in independent coping skills.
104
What are some challenges faced by blended families?
Creating new family relationships;
Adjusting to new living arrangements and potential relocation;
Creating and adjusting to new family and house rules;
Reviewing co-parenting and contact arrangements with the children’s other parent;
Dealing with the loss of previous family structure and lifestyle; and
Potential parental conflict regarding parenting and family values
105
How does the mental health of children in blended or step-families compare to that of a nuclear family?
Children living in blended or stepfamilies often display poor cognitive and socio-emotional outcomes than children who have grown up in nuclear families.
Perales (2017):
Children in stepfamilies or one-parent families had a significantly higher prevalence of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) than children in nuclear families, there was no statistically significant difference in the prevalence of MDD between children in blended families and nuclear families.
Children in blended and one-parent families had a significantly higher prevalence of ADHD compared to nuclear families; however, there was no difference in the prevalence between stepfamilies and nuclear families.
The prevalence of anxiety disorders and conduct disorders was significantly higher in all types of non-nuclear families compared to nuclear families.
\*These findings are NOT indicative of causality, reverse causality MAY be the case\*
However, btw 75-80% of children from non-nuclear families perform well on a range of outcomes.
Further, many cognitive, socio-emotional and psychological outcomes btw nuclear and non-nuclear families are not stat sig \*after controlling for factors such as poverty and parent mental health\*
106
How can couples have children other than the normal way?
Assistive Reproductive Treatments (ART), such as intrauterine insemination (IUI), in-vitro fertilization (IVF), use of donated gametes, and surrogacy, as well as adoption and foster care, help couples have children.
107
How do gay/lesbian feel about genetic tie to children?
Place little significance on it - can be a source of relationship destabilisation.
Whereas hetero couples see it as a source of relationship stabilisation.
108
Is a genetic tie with one's child socially and culturally constructed or innate?
Socially and culturally constructed, rather than innate
109
What are the main reasons heterosexual couples undergo fertility treatment?
- Their expectation of becoming parents
- Complications associated with the adoption process
Therefore, they don't do it because they innately believe a child needs a mother and a father
110
What are the 3 broad groups the Australian population can be divided into based on views towards ART use among hetero and homosexual couples?
1) Majority - consistently comfortable with same-sex and hetero use of ART (mostly female, uni educated, left-wing, non church attendees)
2) Minority - comfortable with hetero but not same-sex use of ART (mostly men, retired, conservative voters, frequent church attendees)
3) Small minority - not comfortable with ART use by anyone (mostly frequent church attendees)
111
What were the findings of the Lamb & Golombok study on adoption?
1. Heterosexual couples were more likely to have experienced infertility than same-sex couples.
2. Same-sex couples were more likely to prefer adoption over other routes to parenthood.
3. Parents in all three family types selected their route to parenthood according to normative expectations, attitudes to biogenetic parenthood, ease of access, and moral reasoning.
4. Same-sex couples’ decisions were enabled by the non-discriminatory sociolegal context of the United Kingdom.
112
Lamb & Golombok: what are heterosexuals motivations to adopt and reasons for terminating fertility treatment?
1. An awareness of their advancing age further limiting the chances of achieving biological parenthood and the fact that this may also count against them when seeking to adopt.
2. Altruistic reasons
3. Already having a relationship with the children who are to be adopted
Terminating Fert Treatment: One partner’s refusal to continue and reaching a pre-set end point couples agreed upon, both of which may be related to the stress suffered during the course of fertility treatment
113
What are the options for lesbian women planning on having children?
Donor insemination
Co-parenting arrangements, where biological parents who are not in a relationship, and/or their respective partners, bring up children together but usually in separate households;
Fostering
Adoption
114
What are the options for gay men planning on having children?
Surrogacy,
co-parenting arrangements,
fostering,
or adoption
115
Lamb & Golombok: what were the motivations for adoption?
1. lack of importance gay and lesbian parents attached to biogenetic kinship
2. adoption was the easiest route (gay male especially)
3. Financial limitations for other options
4. Parents’ sense of morality in their decision making
5. To fulfill their desire to become parents in the context of infertility (mostly hetero couples)
116
What are some of the challenges faced by siblings of children with special needs?
- Reactions from the public
- Feel the need to be a perfect child to compensate for their sibling
- Taking on more roles and responsibilities at home
- Feeling isolated from their sibling with special needs
117
What are some aspects of positive growth that may come from being a sibling of a child with special needs?
- Increased maturity
- Greater self-control
- Empathy for others
- Acceptance and compassion for those with special needs
118
What is SSTP and how has it been shown to help parents of children with ASD?
Stepping Stones Triple P (SSTP) is a system of parenting interventions designed specifically for parents of children with disabilities, including ASD.
Consists of five tiered levels of intervention with programs varying according to intensity.
Programs reduce child problems and improve parenting styles, parenting satisfaction and efficacy, and parental adjustment.
119
What is the low-intensity version of SSTP?
Primary Care Stepping Stones Triple P (PCSSTP)
Consisting of four short sessions targeting one or two specific child problems and designed to be accessed through primary health care providers (doctors)
120
What was the aim of the Tellegen & Sanders study on PCSSTP and what did they find?
Aim: Evaluate the efficacy of PCSSTP in parents of children with ASD
Results: Sig short-term improvements were found in the intervention group on parent-reported child behavior problems, dysfunctional parenting styles, parenting confidence, and parental stress, parental conflict, and relationship happiness.
No sig intervention effects were found on levels of parental depression or anxiety, or on observed child disruptive and parent aversive behavior (may be explained by the floor effect)
Short-term effects were predominantly maintained at 6-month follow-up, and parents reported high levels of goal achievement and satisfaction with the program.
121
What are some limitations of the Tellegen and Sanders study on PCSSTP?
Most children were Australian/White and from two-parent families. Most families were earning above the median Australian income.
The current evidence supporting this intervention relies on parent report data, which can be influenced by expectation biases. Further research using multimodal assessments (e.g., teacher reports, dependent observations using more relevant tasks and settings) would be useful.
122
What is the Signposts program?
Equip parents with skills to manage or prevent difficult child behaviour, encourage appropriate behaviour and teach new skills.
Delivery: In groups and individually face-to-face, through the telephone and online modes.
Population: Parents of children aged 3-16 years with a developmental delay or an intellectual disability
123
What is the Incredible Years Training for Parents program?
- Targets parents of high-risk children and/or those displaying behaviour problems
- Promote children's social competence and reduce behaviour problems (e.g effective praise and limit-setting)
- Parent interpersonal skills
- Promote children's academic skills
Population: Parents of children aged 0-12 years with an identified risk of behaviour problems
124
What is Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT)?
- Emphasises improving the quality of the parent-child relationship through skill building and promoting positive parent-child interaction
Originally developed for young children with conduct-disordered behaviour and includes the use of a one-way mirror and ‘bug in the ear’ system for communicating to the parents as they play with their child.
Population: Primary parent/caregiver and their children aged 3-6 years with behaviour and parent-child relationship problems
Program adaption is available for physically abusive parents with children aged 4-12.
125
What is the Triple P Positive Parenting Program?
- Designed to prevent social, emotional, behavioural, and developmental problems in children by enhancing their parents knowledge, skills and confidence
- 5 intervention levels of increasing intensity
Population: Parents and caregivers of children aged 0-16 years with or without identified problems
126
What is the Tuning in to Kids/Teens program?
- Focus on parents' emotion coaching skills
Population: Parents and caregivers of children aged 18 months and 18 years with emotional and behavioural problems
127
What is the Cool Kids program?
- Teaches parents how to better manage the child's anxiety
Population: Parents and their children aged 7-17 years with anxiety problems
128
What is Multi-Family Psychoeducational Psychotherapy?
- Helps parents and children learn about mood disorders (depressive and bipolar spectrum disorders) and how to effectively manage the symptoms via improved communication, problem-solving, and emotion regulation;
Population: Parents and their children aged 8-12 years with mood disorders (depressive and bipolar spectrum disorders)
129
What is the Parenting Wisely program?
- Teaches parents and children skills to improve their communication and relationships, and decrease conflict through support and behaviour management.
Delivered online, presents scenarios of common family problems, provides demonstration, quizzing, repetition, rehearsal, recognition, and feedback answers.
130
What are the types of anxiety and when do they tend to develop?
8-10 years: phobias/fears, separation anxiety disorder and generalised anxiety
Adolescence: Social phobia, panic disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder
131
What are the cognitive characteristics of child anxiety?
- Concentration problems
- Attention problems
- Memory problems
- Oversensitivity
- Problem-solving difficulties
- Worry
- Cognitive dysfunctions
- Attributional style problems
132
What are the behavioural characteristics of child anxiety?
- Motor restlessness
- Fidgety
- Task avoidance
- Rapid speech
- Erratic behaviour
- Irritability
- Withdrawal
- Perfectionism
- Lack of participation
- Failing to complete tasks
- Seeking easy tasks
133
What are the physiological characteristics of child anxiety?
- Tics
- Recurrent, localised pain
- Rapid heart rate
- Flushing of the skin
- Perspiration
- Headaches
- Muscle tension
- Sleeping problems
- Nausea
- Vomiting
- Enuresis
134
Do children present with well-defined or fuzzy anxiety disorders?
Fuzzy
135
What is generalised anxiety disorder? And what are some management strategies?
Chronic, excessive worry.
Signs: physical symptoms
Strategies: Breathing practice and muscle relaxation, identify negative thought and replace them with realistic, calming kinds of statements. Use of 'coping cards'
136
What kind of anxiety characteristics should parents look out for with regards to child anxiety?
Behavioural and physiological
137
What are the 2 proposed pathways via which anxiety develops in children?
1. Cumulative risk pathway - a combination of predisposing factors increase the child's risk and exposure to anxiety-triggering events
2. Precipitating events pathway - where anxiety is a learned response to an event/s
138
In terms of the cumulative risk pathway, what constitutes the history of child anxiety?
- Child characteristics: child has a number of risk factors that increase their vulnerability
- Also: unstable environment, anxious parenting style, anxious attachment, overprotective parenting, genetic risk for anxiety, wary temperament
139
According the cumulative risk pathway, what are the predisposing factors to child anxiety?
- Genetics
- Inhibited temperament
- Increased vulnerability
140
According to the precipitating events pathway, what are the predisposing factors for child anxiety?
- Parenting style
- Response to an anxious event
- Number and intensity of anxiety-provoking events encountered
141
What are some of the maintaining factors shared by both pathways to child anxiety?
- Avoidance of anxiety-provoking situations
- Limited development of competencies
- Cognitive bias to interpret situations as threatening
- Negative experiences
- Parent responses that overprotective or controlling
142
How many results does a Google search of "anxiety epidemic in children" give?
Over 700,000
143
What does the (limited) data actually say about rates of childhood anxiety?
Rates of adult anxiety have remained stable over the past 30 years, and considering parental anxiety is a risk factor for child anxiety, we can tentatively assume child anxiety has also remained stable over that time.
144
What does the research say about on female / male cat/dog lovers?
Dog-people were higher than cat-people on extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness.
However, cat-people were higher than dog-people on neuroticism and openness to experience(even after accounting for gender)
145
What reasons have been suggested for the differences between personality traits in dog and cat people?
the way that a pet complements the personality of its owner
ie dogs obedient, therefore appeal to people with dominance related traits.
When explored, researchers found no difference between cat-people and dog-people on narcissism and assertiveness. However, found that dog-people were higher than cat-people on competitiveness and social dominance orientation
146
What were the findings of Gray et al.'s study on dating and pets?
Women were more discriminating of a potential partner’s associations with pets than were men.
Dogs served more commonly as social barometers in the dating arena than cats did.
147
What effects can interaction with animals have on the human body?
Increases in oxytocin and changes in other hormone levels
148
In what ways have pets been shown to effect dating?
Single woman standing in public with a puppy or adult Golden Retriever elicited more approaches and conversations than did the same woman standing with an adult Rottweiler, stuffed teddy bear, or potted plant;
A man with a dog was more likely to obtain an unfamiliar woman’s phone number during a meeting in a public space than the same man without a dog.
In yet another study, women evaluated men depicted in vignettes as more attractive if these men were described as dog owners.
Pet allergies and liklihood of taking care of pets also affected partner choices
149
How does decline in fertility worldwide relate to pet attachment?
Parents of young children are the most likely to own a dog, but report less attachment to the animal in part because it has been obtained on behalf of the children.
Both younger and older adults without children report more attachment to a pet dog, perhaps due to lack of fertility and associated attachment to a pet
150
What are the limitations in Gray et al's study on pets and dating?
Reliance on self-report
a correlational research design,
Use of questions for which external validation or reliability are not available
Doesn't explore role of sexual orientation
