Quiz 2

Question 1

what is predation

Answer 1

Species interactions in which one species obtains chemical energy through the consumption of another.

Question 2

how do predators influence their environment

Answer 2

Changes in predator abundance can also significantly alter community structure and function.

In many systems populations exhibit cyclic behaviour, in which the abundance of predators and prey track each other.

Predators reduce prey numbers directly by eating them.

They also impact prey numbers indirectly by increasing stress which slows reproduction. The stress effect persists into the next generation.

Question 3

How can introduced predators be bad

Answer 3

The Nile Perch (Lates niloticus) was introduced to Lake Victoria in 1954 to replace dwindling native commercial stocks caused by over fishing.

It has been implicated (both by predation and competition in the extinction of over 200 native fish species endemic to Lake Victoria.

Additional factors at work here include increased erosion and runoff and nutrient levels, and invasions by algae and water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), which depleted oxygen in the lake.

Question 4

what is herbivory

Answer 4

Species interactions in which one species obtains chemical energy through the consumption of another species.

Herbivory differs from predation because grazed plants typically don’t die.

Moderate levels of herbivory occur in all plant communities.

Question 5

what is non-interactive grazing

Answer 5

Non-interactive grazing. In other cases herbivores do not control vegetation productivity. E.g. European Finches

Question 6

what is interactive grazing

Answer 6

Interactive grazing. In many plant-herbivore systems the abundance of vegetation impacts herbivores, who have reciprocal impacts on vegetation productivity. eg. Snowshoe hares, tent caterpillars.

Question 7

how can plants defend against herbivores

Answer 7

Plants have diverse adaptations to slow or prevent herbivory.

Physical (thorns, spines, phytoliths (microscopic bits of silica)) and chemical deterrents (secondary metabolites including: toxins, compounds that decrease palatability digestibility, and allomones (to attract predators of herbivores).

Question 8

what is the red queen hypothesis

Answer 8

The Red Queen Hypothesis

Strong competitive interactions require continual adaptation (evolutionary arms race that species are required to participate in to persist).

Question 9

how can herbivory affect an ecosystem

Answer 9

In some situations increases in the abundance of herbivores can fundamentally alter vegetation and community structure.

Shifting agricultural practices in their southern range have increased snow goose abundance.

Growing populations of lesser snow geese (Anser caerulescens caerulescens) have transformed Arctic wetland complexes by overgrazing.

Question 10

how do number of species and patch area relate to each other

Answer 10

The number of species in a patch increases with increasing area.

General principle that applies in most ecosystems.

Large habitat patches / islands have more species than comparable small ones.

Question 11

what is Darlington’s rule, and a general species area relationship

Answer 11

Darlington’s rule: a tenfold increases in island area results in the doubling of the number of species.

Species area relationships follow a non-linear power function (hyperbolic curve)

Expressed mathematically as:

Number of species (S) = c * area^z

where c and z are fitted constants

Question 12

how many abundant and rare species are in an ecosystem

Answer 12

Communities typically have a small number of abundant species, some common species and many rare species.

Rare-moderately abundant species are the most frequent.

Typically, only a few species are dominant.

Question 13

what are dominance diversity curves

Answer 13

Dominance-diversity curves plot the logarithm of abundance (y-axis) against their rank abundance (x-axis).

Diversity, evenness, and the importance of rarity can be visualized using dominance-diversity curves.

Steeper curves had lower species evenness.

Question 14

what is evenness

Answer 14

Evenness: Similarity in relative abundance of species in a community

There are many diversity indices that incorporate measures of abundance / evenness (Simpson’s, Shannon-Weiner)

Question 15

what is simpson’s index of diversity

Answer 15

Simpson’s Index of Diversity = 1 - D

where $D=∑_1^s(p_i)^2$

where pi = proportional abundance (ni/N)

ni = abundance of individual species

N = abundance of all species

Diverse = higher values; less diverse = lower values. Also provides a measure of the probability that repeated sampling will yield a different species.

Question 16

what is the neutral theory of biodiversity

Answer 16

Patterns of biodiversity/abundance can be explained by random extinction and dispersal processes.

All species are functionally equivalent.

New species arise through random speciation events.

Species replacements are random.

Species replacements originate from the local communities and a larger meta-community.

Models based on these assumptions have a good fit with empirical rank abundance curves.

Question 17

what is the theory of island biogeography

Answer 17

Theory of Island Biogeography: MacArthur and Wilson (1967)

Number of species on an island is a function of island size and isolation (distance from the mainland).

Larger islands have lower extinction rates.

Less isolated islands have higher immigration rates.

Island size and isolation affect the equilibrium between immigration and recurrent extinction of species.

This model is also neutral to species identity hut has an enormous impact on conservation biology.

Question 18

what are niche dynamics

Answer 18

Characteristics of species (tolerances) are important and species interactions (especially competition) lead to niche partitioning.

The way that niche space is divided is variable, but partitioning typically results in:

1. a few generalists that can tolerate a wide range of conditions and use a diversity of resources
2. many specialists that have narrow tolerances and use more specific resources.

Patterns of relative abundance are sustained by feedbacks between abundance and extinction and colonization probabilities.

Generalists tend to be locally abundant and regionally widespread.

Specialists tend to have low abundance, and be locally rare.

Question 19

what are three theoretical perspectives on abundance diversity patterns

Answer 19

We will cover 3 theoretical perspectives, but there are many more.

1. Neutral Dynamics
2. Niche Dynamics
3. Multiple FIlter Model

Question 20

what is the filter model of community assemblage

Answer 20

Patterns of diversity and relative abundance in communities are determined by multiple processes.

These processes can be conceptualized as a series of successive filters that act on the regional species pool to determine the composition of a community.

Dispersal limitation prevents some species from arriving.

Environmental filtering prevents some species from establishing and surviving.

Species interactions influence realized niches.

Fine-scale variation in environmental conditions is also important. How patchy an area is can affect some species. Microclimates, small scale variations, etc.

Question 21

why do theories of abundance diversity patterns matter

Answer 21

• Predicting success of Species re-introduction
• Danger of invasive species
• Help predict how changes will affect how communities exist in the future.
• Tell us about empty niches
• Are some communities more or less vulnerable to change?
• Are some communities more or less vulnerable to invasion?
• Can we predict species that will be problematic invasives?
• What happens to community composition in a highly disturbed world?

Question 22

what are invasive species

Answer 22

Invasive species are species that establish a new range where they persist, proliferate, and spread to the detriment of the environment.

Question 23

what are exotic species

Answer 23

Exotic species. Species outside of its normal range that doesn’t cause damage.

Question 24

what are the negative impacts of invasive species

Answer 24

The negative impacts of invasive species include depressed populations, local extinctions, and ecosystem restructuring.

Key mechanisms here are predation and competition.

After habitat loss, invasive species are recognized as the greatest threat to global biodiversity.

Question 25

why are invasive species happening

Answer 25

The increased global movement of people and goods has caused an unprecedented rate of species translocations. The number of exotic and invasive species is increasing. Species invasions are human-mediated (intentionally and unintentionally). Climate change is becoming increasingly important here.

Question 26

what are the stages of invasive species

Answer 26

Invasion is a process that involves multiple transitions. Transport, introduction, Establishment, Spread, Impact. There are multiple barriers to invasion. Most species that are transported do not become invasive. Williamson estimates that approximately 10% of species successfully move from one stage to another. (0.1*0.1*0.1*0.1 = 0.0001) = 0.01% chance of an individual species becoming invasive.

Question 27

what's the brown tree snake like

Answer 27

This species is native to Australia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands. It was introduced to Guam via military operations during / following WW2. There are few natural predators and ample prey on Guam, and by 1970 it had colonized the entire island. Population growth and predation caused the extinction of most of Guam’s native forest birds and bats.

Question 28

what are the attributes of successful invaders

Answer 28

Considerable effort has focussed on Identifying traits of invasive species. Making good predictions is central to managing risk. Generalization is challenging. Traits linked to invasion potential vary by environment and functional group. Factors (historical) - The number of propagules - Residence time in new habitat - Previous history of invasion Factors (biological) - Fecundity - Short generation time - Rate of population expansion

Question 29

what makes a community vulnerable to invasion

Answer 29

Extreme environments (like the arctic) may be less vulnerable, but climate change is likely to alter this pattern. Islands are extremely vulnerable. Lower diversity = more empty niches, recipient community is naïve (less adapted to competition, predation, etc). Where human activities have shifted disturbances regimes outside of the range of natural variability invasive species yield persistent novel ecosystems. More diverse communities are more resistant to invasion (the evidence is mixed here).

Question 30

what are novel ecosystems

Answer 30

Novel ecosystems: ecosystems with species composition that has no precedent in that biome. Also called emerging or no-analog ecosystems. Factors contributing include: unprecedented rates of species movement, loss of original species pool, significant changes in the abiotic environment.

Question 31

what is bottom up resource control

Answer 31

The Abundance of Populations (and community structure) is limited by food availability. Consistent with observations of biomass across trophic levels. Widespread observational and experimental evidence shows that increasing nutrients increases productivity

Question 32

what is top down resource control

Answer 32

Community structure and the abundance of populations is controlled by higher trophic levels (consumers, predators). Higher trophic levels regulate system dynamics.

Question 33

What's an example of top down resource control

Answer 33

The intertidal zone on this coast is home to relatively simple invertebrate community. Community includes 15-16 species Experimental removal of starfish (Pisaster spp) changes a 15-16 species community to a 8 species community. This is because the predation controls the population of mussels, without the sea starts, they grow in population, and outcompete other species like chitons. Other effects too.

Question 34

How does predation have indirect and direct effects on other things in the ecosystem

Answer 34

Predation of herbivores limits competition and prevents the dominance of one species of mussel (Mytilus californicus). Changes in starfish abundance impacts the abundance of things they eat (direct effects) and things they don’ eat (indirect effects).

Question 35

what is a keystone species

Answer 35

A species that has an impact that is disproportionately large relative to its abundance in the ecosystem.

Question 36

what are trophic cascades

Answer 36

A species that has an impact that is disproportionately large relative to its abundance in the ecosystem.

Question 37

what are keystone resources

Answer 37

Keystone Resources: resources required by a large number of species. Ex. Course woody debris as habitat for cavity nesters, insects, fungi.

Question 38

what are keystone modifiers

Answer 38

Keystone Modifiers: Species that create habitat by modifying ecosystems. Ex: Beavers and wetland creation.

Question 39

what are cultural keystones

Answer 39

Cultural Keystones: Culturally salient species that shape the cultural identity of people. Ex: Cedar, Muskrats, Caribou.

Question 40

how do the importance of top-down, bottom-up, and middle-out, controls relate and change

Answer 40

The importance of these effects varies in different systems, among species, and through time. The emphasis has shifted to determining when and where different controls predominant? The importance of different controls can also shift with environmental conditions. In semiarid areas of Chile: wet years can shift the relative importance of top-down, vs bottom-up processes.

Question 41

why is it important to know if an ecosystem is top down, or bottom up

Answer 41

- Focus of conservation efforts - Effects of species lost - Wolf culls, good or bad

Question 42

what is trophic rewinding

Answer 42

Species introductions intended to restore top-down ecosystem control and initiate trophic cascades that promote biodiversity and ecosystem function.

Question 43

what is standard deviation

Answer 43

If a set of data is normally distributed 68% of data is within 1 SD of the population mean 95% of data is within 2 SD of the population mean The sample standard deviation is an estimate of the population standard deviation. More accurate with a larger sample size.

Question 44

how does sampling effect statistics

Answer 44

We usually don’t know the population mean or the population Standard deviation. We collect data to estimate these. Size of a sample, randomness of data chosen, and lack of correlation between data points affect quality of sample representation. Doesn’t always mean its necessary to get as many data points as possible, sometimes there is a limit of diminishing returns

Question 45

what is standard error

Answer 45

We can obtain an estimate of the variation among sample means by calculating the standard error Sx=S/√n The standard error of the mean is estimated by dividing the sample standard deviation by the square root of the sample size. The standard deviation of a sample statistic is called the standard error of the statistic.

Question 46

what is the 95% confidence interval

Answer 46

(1.96) * the standard error of the mean is used to calculate the 95% confidence interval of the mean. 1.96 * SE = 95% CI The 95% confidence interval is the range that 95 times out of 100 contains the population mean.

Question 47

what is the general procedure for a statistical test

Answer 47

We perform statistical tests by comparing a test statistic with the probability distribution for that statistic General Procedure. 1. set up $H_0$ and $H_A$ 2. Determine test statistic 3. Choose significance level (typically α = 0.05) 4. Collect data 5. Calculate and compare test statistic to a distribution 6. reject or retain H0 There are many different tests. We will focus on tests that involve t-distribution (t-test)

Question 48

what is the null hypothesis

Answer 48

Null Hypothesis H0 The hypothesis of no difference Statistical hypothesis that is the opposite of our research hypothesis (ex: blueberry productivity is the same in 2009 and 2010)

Question 49

what is the alternative hypothesis

Answer 49

Alternative hypothesis HA Opposite of the null hypothesis (there is a difference0 Ex: blueberry productivity is different in 2009 and 2010

Question 50

what is the t test formula

Answer 50

(x-u)/SE = T x = population mean u = theoretical mean SE = standard error tells use how unusual a given mean is compared to the expectations set out by the t-distribition

Question 51

what does a t value give you

Answer 51

a p value which tells you the the probability of collecting these data given that the null hypothesis is true

Question 52

what is type 1 error

Answer 52

Type 1 Error (α). Rejecting a null hypothesis when it is true. If we adopt alpha (α) of 0.05 as a significance threshold then differences we consider ‘significant’ would only occur by chance (when Ho is true) 5 times out of 100. The “p-value” - The probability of collecting these data given that the null hypothesis is true.

Question 53

what is type 2 error

Answer 53

Type 2 Error (β). Failing to reject a null hypothesis when it is false. β = the probability of committing type II error (failing to reject Ho) The probability of Type 2 error varies with sample size, the size of the difference we are trying to detect and variance.

Question 54

what is statistical power

Answer 54

Statistical Power (1-β). Ability to detect the effect of a variable (probability of correctly detecting an effect)

Question 55

what are the two characteristics of statistics

Answer 55

1. Small samples provide less reliable estimates 2. Standard error provides a way to characterize error in our estimates

Question 56

what is a least squares regression

Answer 56

- Linear regression generates a straight line, ŷ = ax + b, that provides best prediction of y for any value of x - The line is determined by minimizing the distance between the data and fitted line, i.g. the residuals - The r squared (r^2) measures the match between the prediction line and the data (proportion of the variance in y that is explained by our regression line). It ranges from 0-1

Question 57

what is succession

Answer 57

Succession is cumulative directional change in community composition in a given area through time

Question 58

what is primary succession

Answer 58

Succession is cumulative directional change in community composition in a given area through time

Question 59

what is a general pattern for vegetation change in temperate regions

Answer 59

Vegetation change: Mosses→Mountain avens (0-15yrs)→willows(15-35yrs)→Alder thickets(35-80 years)→Sitka spruce(115-200years)→Sitka spruce, alder, hemlock (>200 years) This pattern is pretty similar across different areas.

Question 60

does all succession follow the same pattern

Answer 60

In reality things aren’t so simple: Some areas can become stuck in an early stage, no making it to the final stages of succession.

Question 61

what is Hydrach and Xerarch succession

Answer 61

Hydrach Succession: Pioneer community becomes established on a wet substrate. Succession at the edge of a shallow lake Xerarch Succession: Pioneer community develops on a dry substrate. Ex: lichen and loss establishment on bare rock.

Question 62

what is secondary succession

Answer 62

Succession on a previously vegetated site where the community is damaged or killed (there are a spectrum of impacts here). Disturbances: forest fires, wind throw, logging, canopy gap creation, agricultural activity, etc. Some seeds, spores, and vegetative propagules, and sometimes soil are present Generally Things recover much more rapidly.

Question 63

how do we study succession

Answer 63

Ideally we measure changes over time Practically, we use space for time substitution Ex: Find a site with a forest fire 5 years ago, another 10 years ago, another 50 years, etc. Has problems, but saves decades of time.

Question 64

what do thaw slumps tell us about succession in the arctic

Answer 64

One type of disruption in the low arctic is a thaw slump, where mud flows shift over time for years before stabilizing. Secondary succession in thaw slumps don’t seem to approach the standard plant community composition. Though after 400-600 years, they get largely similar to standard tundra. So it takes a while. Disturbances can be very heterogenous. In a forest fire, some spots are hotter than others, some get more burnt, etc. Which can have an impact on succession later on.

Question 65

what is disturbance

Answer 65

Any “discrete event in space and time that disrupts ecosystem, community, or population structure and changes resource, substrate, or the physical environment” (Pickett and white 1985) Disturbances have a range of impacts on ecosystems (spatially and temporally) To a greater or lesser degree, disturbances reset the successional clock. Following most disturbances communities undergo succession, or directional change in community composition. Disturbance maintains heterogeneity, diversity and function. Pivotal for normal functioning of ecosystems.

Question 66

what are micro-disturbances

Answer 66

Micro-disturbances occur at fine scales (typically units of m^2) Examples: Tree death (gap formation) Frost boils (Cryoturbation) Animal burrows / grazing The fine-scale patchiness created by micro-disturbance maintains compositional and functional diversity in ecosystems. Micro-disturbances are surrounded by a large un-impacted areas, which strongly influence their recovery.

Question 67

what are broad-scale disturbances

Answer 67

Disturbances that impact larger contiguous areas (typically units of km^2) Examples: Forest fire severe pathogen outbreaks Hurricanes These disturbances impact entire landscapes / ecosystems. AKA: stand-replacing disturbances Fine-scale pattern within these disturbances and the surrounding ecosystem influence the nature of recovery. Ex: unburned wetlands complexes within a fire.

Question 68

what are disturbance regimes

Answer 68

At a given time and spatial scale a system can usually be characterized by the regimes of one or several disturbances. Ex: Boreal forest: 1) Stand replacing fires 2) Insects Costal temperate Forest: 1) Canopy gap formation 2) insects/pathogens Garry oaks stands: 1) Anthropogenic fires High Arctic: 1) fine scale permafrost changes High grass prairie: (In the past) 1) Fire 2) animal herds

Question 69

how can you describe and individual disturbance

Answer 69

Individual disturbances can be described in terms of their: Spatial extent (size of the area affected) Intensity (crown vs surface fires) Regularity (how often do they happen) return interval (time between events) frequency (# events / time) Timing (spring flood, fall flood) The disturbances that an ecosystem experiences, including their intensity and frequency, describe their “disturbance regime” generally the frequency of disturbances is inversely proportional to its size and severity (ie. Infrequent disturbances are larger and more severe)

Question 70

why do we care about succession

Answer 70

Tell us about health of the ecosystem. Tell us if an area could recover after logging or other land usage.

Question 71

how much can we generalize about the changes that occur as part of succession

Answer 71

How much can we generalize about the changes that occur as part of succession? We can get a pretty good sense from the environmental conditions, but it has a lot of variability. Environmental conditions and the regional species pool set up the context for succession. On Vancouver island a mild and wet climate leads to the development of productive coniferous forest (time scale here is 500+ years) If our climate was colder and drier, succession would look different.

Question 72

what was an early (but wrong) view of succession

Answer 72

Succession moves through a series of stages until reaching a stable climax community. Changes are predictable and lead to a single ‘climax community’ In the absence of disturbance the climax community is capable of self perpetuation (recall Frederick Clements’ organism metaphor). Equilibrium condition with no directional or cumulative change in species composition.

Question 73

what is a modern view of succession

Answer 73

Trajectories are influenced by many factors and prediction can be challenging - Distance to seed sources (Glacier Bay, Yellowstone NP) - Timing of disturbance (field abandonment) - Fine scale variability (moisture, nutrients, etc) Succession doesn’t proceed to a single end point. - Polyclimaxes - succession with multiple end points - Disclimaxes - frequent disturbances limits succession - Edaphic climax - local variation in soils limits succession

Question 74

what are alternative stable states

Answer 74

Alternative stable states are different ecological configurations (structural and functional) that occur in the same place under similar environmental conditions The stability of each state is maintained by positive strong feedback Example: Longleaf pine / oak young and mature pines can survive ground fires, but oaks cannot Mature pine supply fuel for ground fire. Oak leaf litter suppresses fire Many ecosystems can persist for long intervals in one of several stable configurations succession can lead to different configurations or systems can undergo rapid transitions Shifts between states may occur because of changes in disturbance regimes, environmental conditions, population size, etc.

Question 75

what are some examples of alternative stable states

Answer 75

Examples: - Black spruce forest / heathlands - Sedge wetland / hypersaline barrens - Kelp forests / urchin barrens - Oligotrophic / eutrophic lake - Arid shrubland / desert

Question 76

what is resilience and resistance

Answer 76

Ecological resilience (resistance in the textbook). The magnitude of disturbance that an ecosystem can absorb without exhibiting a fundamental shifts structure and function (Holling 1973) What kind of fire (severity / return interval) will flip the system from oak to pine? Recovery time (engineering resilience). the time it takes variable to return to equilibrium following a perturbation (Pimm 1984) ^ this is engineering resilience, used in textbook, but not right definition.

Question 77

what are traits

Answer 77

One component of biodiversity is the diversity in species characteristic (or traits) Traits are a variable measured on an organism A functional trait is “a trait arising from or influencing an organism’s fecundity, growth, development, or survival”

Question 78

what is functional diversity

Answer 78

“the extent of trait differences among a set of organisms Can arise both from intra and interspecific trait variability

Question 79

what is intraspecific trait variability

Answer 79

Variation in traits between individuals of the same species Phenotypic plasticity or local genetic adaptation With phenotypic plasticity, placing the offspring in a different environment would change their phenotyp, while with local genetic adaptation it would not

Question 80

what is interspecific trait variability

Answer 80

Variations in average traits between species traits usually vary more between species than within individuals of the same species Important at the community level

Question 81

what is functional diversity and composition

Answer 81

Functional diversity: the range of trait values in the community Functional composition: the average trait in the community

Question 82

what are response and effect traits

Answer 82

Response trait: a trait whose values determine how individuals respond to environmental conditions. Ex Bark thickness - fire tolerance Effect trait: a trait which influences the properties of an ecosystem Ex Leaf nitrogen content - nutrient cycling Response traits affect how an organisms react to environmental change like ecosystem degradation or climate change Then Effect traits affect how an organism effects the Ecosystem processes like Ecosystem functions orEcosystem services

Question 83

what is an ecological filter

Answer 83

Can be abiotic (e.g. cold) or biotic (g.g predation) Can act on intraspecific (e.g. height of yarrow) or interspecific (e.g. amphibians in ponds) trait variability Only individuals and species with traits that allow them to pass the filter survive - Reduces number of species - Changes functional composition (i.e. average trait values) - Reduces functional diversity(i.e. variation in trait values)

Question 84

what is the dominant species effect

Answer 84

- Ecosystem functions are dependent on the trait values of the dominant species in the community (i.e., the functional composition)

Question 85

what is the complementarity effect

Answer 85

- Ecosystem functions are dependent on the differences in trait values of species in the community (i.e., the functional diversity) - Species with different traits have different ecological niches, which leads to reduced overlap and higher complementarity in resource use - Reduced competition for resources enhances ecosystem functions that depend on those species

Question 86

what is biological insurance

Answer 86

- Ecosystem functions are more stable in the face of disturbances when there are: - Multiple species with same function (i.e. low functional diversity in effect traits) - Variety of responses to disturbances among species that share the same function (i.e. high functional diversity in response traits)

Question 87

what is dominance, complementarity, Biological insurance

Answer 87

Dominance: Functional composition as a driver of ecosystem functioning Complementarity: Functional diversity as a driver of ecosystem functioning Biological insurance: Redundancy in effect traits and diversity in response traits as a driver of ecosystem stability.

Question 88

what is ecological restoration

Answer 88

“Process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed” Which species or ecosystem functions to foster in the restored ecosystem? How to re-establish those species and functions in the ecosystem?

Question 89

how do response traits affect species performant and restoration success

Answer 89

- Meta-analysis of grassland restoration in Britain: Grass were better overall Other herbs with traits for high colonization ability (like relative growth rate) had better establishment Other herbs with traits for high competitive ability (like height) had better persistence

Question 90

how do effect traits impact ecosystem functions and services

Answer 90

Specific leaf area → Decomposition and soil fertility Wood density → Carbon storage Flower shape → Pollination Dispersal type → Dispersal

Question 91

how can we use knowledge of functional traits for restoration

Answer 91

Knowing what traits have a specific effect on an ecosystem can be more useful than knowing what species have a certain effect on an ecosystem, since a different ecosystem might have different species, but they still might have those desired traits

Question 92

how do effect traits affect restoration

Answer 92

Delivery of functions and/or services Use effect traits to design target communities that provide specific functions and/or services Selecting species for restoration based on effect traits related to C cycling increased aboveground carbons storage in Hawaiian forests

Question 93

how do response traits affect restoration

Answer 93

Resilient communities able to withstand future environmental change Use response traits to select species that will more likely survive ecological filters of current and or future conditions How do functional diversity and composition of grassland communities impact their response to extreme drought events?