Race, Indigenous Australians and Injustice

Question 1

What is ‘race’ as a social construct?

Answer 1

‘Race’ can be used as a label, a category, or a way to assign characteristics. It has little or negligible basis in biology and is a malleable concept that changes over time.

‘Race’ is often used to refer to shared biological differences, but DNA research shows significant variation within so-called ‘races’.

Question 2

When did the term ‘race’ enter the English language?

Answer 2

Around the 16th century.

Initially, it referred to common descent or origin.

Question 3

How did the concept of race change in the early United States?

Answer 3

Persons born in the US were not considered part of their ancestral races but simply US-born.

This reflects a shift in how identity was constructed based on geography rather than ethnicity.

Question 4

What did Charles Darwin primarily write about in ‘On the Origin of Species’?

Answer 4

The evolution of species into subspecies through natural selection.

Darwin did not write about race but about different species of plants and animals.

Question 5

What is Social Darwinism?

Answer 5

A misapplication of Darwin’s natural selection concept to human society, suggesting survival of the fittest.

Herbert Spencer created this idea, which was used to justify eugenics and colonialism.

Question 6

What historical period marked the beginning of modern colonialism?

Answer 6

The Age of Discovery, starting in the 15th century.

This period involved European nations seeking new trade routes and territories.

Question 7

What were the top five languages spoken at home in Australia according to 2021 Census data?

Answer 7

• Mandarin (2.7%)
• Arabic (1.4%)
• Vietnamese (1.3%)
• Cantonese (1.2%)
• Punjabi (0.9%)

These statistics reflect Australia’s linguistic diversity.

Question 8

What percentage of the Australian population was born overseas in 2021?

Answer 8

27.6%.

This indicates a significant level of immigration and cultural diversity.

Question 9

What is the primary method for collecting data on Indigenous Australians in the Census?

Answer 9

Self-identification.

This allows individuals to identify as Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander.

Question 10

As of 30 June 2021, what percentage of the Australian population identified as Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander?

Answer 10

3.8%.

This represents an increase from previous years and reflects growing recognition and identification.

Question 11

What was the Northern Territory Intervention of 2007?

Answer 11

A $587 million package of legislation affecting Indigenous communities, including restrictions on alcohol and changes to welfare payments.

It aimed to address issues such as child abuse and neglect.

Question 12

What did the ‘Little Children are Sacred’ report focus on?

Answer 12

Instances of sexual abuse, especially of children, in Northern Territory Indigenous communities.

The report led to significant public and governmental response to child protection issues.

Question 13

What is the estimated direct government expenditure per person for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians in 2015-16?

Answer 13

$44,886.

This is approximately double the rate for non-Indigenous Australians.

Question 14

What was the purpose of the Gordon Inquiry conducted in 2002?

Answer 14

To examine government responses to complaints of family violence and child abuse in Aboriginal communities.

It produced 197 findings and recommendations for better handling of these issues.

Question 15

Fill in the blank: The term ‘ethnicity’ is often associated with different meanings and there is no ______.

Answer 15

internationally agreed definition.

The ABS uses a multidimensional approach to understand ethnicity in Australia.

Question 16

What was the population growth rate of First Nations people from 2001 to 2021?

Answer 16

Increased from 2.4% in 2001 to 3.8% in 2021

Factors include changing identification in the Census, undercounting in 2016, and higher participation in 2021.

Question 17

What is the approximate infant mortality rate among the Indigenous population compared to non-Indigenous?

Answer 17

Approximately five times higher among the Indigenous population

(AIHW data indicates significant disparities)

Question 18

What has been the trend in Indigenous child mortality rates from 2008 to 2018?

Answer 18

Improved by 7 percent

However, the gap with non-Indigenous child mortality rates has widened.

Question 19

What is the leading cause of Indigenous child deaths between 2014 and 2018?

Answer 19

Perinatal conditions (49 percent)

Most deaths occurred during the first year of life.

Question 20

What is the life expectancy for Indigenous males and females compared to non-Indigenous Australians?

Answer 20

Indigenous males: 71.6 years, Indigenous females: 75.6 years; gap of 8.6 years for males and 7.8 years for females

Compared to non-Indigenous males (79.7 years) and females (83.1 years).

Question 21

What was the unemployment rate for Indigenous Australians in 2018?

Answer 21

18%

Compared to 5.3% for non-Indigenous Australians.

Question 22

What was the employment rate for Indigenous Australians aged 25-64 in 2021?

Answer 22

56%

This was below the target trajectory of 60.5% for that year.

Question 23

What was the unemployment rate for Indigenous Australians aged 25-64 from 2016 to 2021?

Answer 23

Decreased from 15.0% to 10.0%

The gap with non-Indigenous unemployment rates also decreased.

Question 24

What percentage of Indigenous adults lived in households with incomes in the lowest 20% nationally in 2021?

Answer 24

35%

This is based on equivalised gross household income.

Question 25

What was the median gross weekly equivalised household income for Indigenous adults in 2021?

Answer 25

$830 ## Footnote This reflects an 18% growth since 2016.

Question 26

What percentage of Indigenous Australians aged 20-24 completed school to grade 12 in 2016?

Answer 26

62% ## Footnote Compared to 86% for non-Indigenous Australians.

Question 27

What was the percentage of Indigenous Australians aged 20-64 who completed a non-school qualification in 2021?

Answer 27

48% ## Footnote This is an increase from 42% in 2016.

Question 28

What trend has been observed in Indigenous higher education student numbers from 1996 to 2018?

Answer 28

More than doubled from 3,624 to 7,273 students ## Footnote The rate of commencing Indigenous students aged 20-64 increased by 37%.

Question 29

What percentage of Indigenous households were homeowners in 2014-15?

Answer 29

29% ## Footnote Compared to 69% of non-Indigenous households.

Question 30

How much more likely are Indigenous households to experience overcrowding compared to non-Indigenous households?

Answer 30

More than 3 times as likely ## Footnote 12.9% of Indigenous households were overcrowded compared to 3.4% of others.

Question 31

What was the imprisonment rate increase for Indigenous adults from 2012 to 2021?

Answer 31

29% increase ## Footnote The age-standardised imprisonment rate increased by 40% for Indigenous Australians.

Question 32

What is the gap in imprisonment rates between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians as of 2021?

Answer 32

14 times higher for Indigenous Australians ## Footnote Rate difference increased from 1,444 to 2,059 per 100,000 population.

Question 33

What was the imprisonment rate for Indigenous Australians in 2021?

Answer 33

2,059 per 100,000 population ## Footnote This represents an increase from 1,444 per 100,000 in 2012.

Question 34

What was the increase in imprisonment rate for Indigenous adults from 2006 to 2021?

Answer 34

70% increase ## Footnote This increase was from 1,333 to 2,223 per 100,000 population.

Question 35

What was the absolute gap in imprisonment rates between Indigenous and non-Indigenous adults in 2021?

Answer 35

2,059 per 100,000 population ## Footnote This gap widened from 1,201 to 2,059 between 2006 and 2021.

Question 36

What was the relative difference in adult imprisonment rates in 2006 compared to 2021?

Answer 36

Increased from 10 times to 14 times as high ## Footnote The rate ratio changed from 10.1 to 13.5.

Question 37

Who was JC in the case example from Western Australia?

Answer 37

An Indigenous woman shot by a police officer ## Footnote The incident occurred on 17 September 2019.

Question 38

What led to police involvement in JC's case?

Answer 38

JC threatened harm and was armed with a kitchen knife ## Footnote Relatives expressed concern for her safety and others.

Question 39

What significant action did the police officer take during the encounter with JC?

Answer 39

Discharged his weapon, fatally shooting JC ## Footnote This was the first time a police officer was charged with the murder of an Indigenous person in WA in a century.

Question 40

What claim did Bill Shorten make regarding young Aboriginal men in 2015?

Answer 40

'More likely to end up in jail than university' ## Footnote This was supported by data showing higher jail rates than university attendance.

Question 41

What are two explanations for the injustice experienced by Indigenous Australians?

Answer 41

* Individual actions through racism * Social explanations due to institutional racism ## Footnote These explanations are provided by Ball & Carpenter.

Question 42

What is the process of 'othering' in the context of Indigenous Australians?

Answer 42

Confirmation of a white 'self' as subject against a black 'other' as object ## Footnote This process is rooted in colonialism.

Question 43

What change did Fremantle Council make regarding Australia Day in 2016?

Answer 43

Moved celebrations to another day and renamed it 'One Day' ## Footnote This decision followed consultation with local Indigenous elders.

Question 44

What assumptions lead to individual blaming of Indigenous Australians for their experiences of injustice?

Answer 44

* Inherent racial characteristics * Acting without historical context * Freedom to create social conditions ## Footnote These assumptions are often reinforced by liberalism and egalitarianism.

Question 45

What does the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth) aim to promote?

Answer 45

Tolerance and acceptance of racial and ethnic diversity ## Footnote It supports the idea that individuals can express their racial identity freely.

Question 46

What was a key finding of the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody?

Answer 46

Racial discrimination is embedded in institutions ## Footnote The commission made 339 recommendations for improving procedures for persons in custody.

Question 47

What is the focus of the 'racial contract' concept?

Answer 47

Outcomes of policies, laws, and practices rather than intent ## Footnote It highlights how even neutral laws can harm Indigenous Australians.

Question 48

What is 'justice reinvestment'?

Answer 48

Redirecting money from prisons to rebuild communities ## Footnote This approach aims to address the root causes of incarceration.

Question 49

What was the outcome of the Eatock v Bolt (2011) case?

Answer 49

Court found that Bolt's articles caused harm and reinforced racial stereotypes ## Footnote The case addressed the legitimacy of racial identification for fair-skinned Aboriginal people.

Question 50

What incident highlighted adverse police discretion in relation to Indigenous people?

Answer 50

Tanya Day's removal from a train leading to her death in custody ## Footnote This case raised concerns about public drunkenness and police treatment.

Question 51

What are two elements needed to decrease the over-representation of Indigenous Australians in prison?

Answer 51

* Criminal justice system reform * Addressing fundamental factors like housing and education ## Footnote These reforms aim to prevent contact with the criminal justice system.

Question 52

What is the concept of 'white race privilege'?

Answer 52

Oppression that Indigenous people face that non-Indigenous people don’t face, such as injustice through the criminal justice system. ## Footnote This concept highlights the systemic advantages that white individuals experience compared to Indigenous populations.

Question 53

How does anti-racism function in relation to white privilege?

Answer 53

Anti-racism works to remove disadvantage but does not displace unearned advantage. ## Footnote This suggests that anti-racist efforts may not address the underlying privileges held by non-Indigenous individuals.

Question 54

What did Tannoch-Bland say about white privilege?

Answer 54

‘Unearned, invisible, denied and systemic’ advantage providing a sense of entitlement and over-empowerment. ## Footnote This description emphasizes the often unacknowledged nature of white privilege.

Question 55

Who is John Scalzi and what analogy did he use regarding white privilege?

Answer 55

A United States sci-fi writer who described being a 'Straight white male' as the lowest difficulty setting in life. ## Footnote This analogy compares life experiences to a video game, illustrating how white privilege simplifies challenges faced.

Question 56

In the analogy of 'The Real World', what does the 'lowest difficulty setting' refer to?

Answer 56

The advantages that straight white males have in navigating societal challenges. ## Footnote This analogy helps to visualize the systemic ease of access and support that comes with white privilege.

Question 57

What are some benefits of playing on the lowest difficulty setting in 'The Real World'?

Answer 57

* Default behaviours are easier * Lower barriers for quest completion * Quicker leveling-up thresholds * Automatic access to certain areas ## Footnote These benefits illustrate how white privilege allows for easier navigation through societal structures.

Question 58

True or False: Changing the difficulty setting in 'The Real World' unlocks rewards.

Answer 58

False ## Footnote This underscores that while higher difficulty settings may present more challenges, they do not provide additional rewards or benefits.

Question 59

Fill in the blank: In the analogy of 'The Real World', life is compared to a _______.

Answer 59

[role-playing game] ## Footnote This comparison serves to illustrate the varying levels of difficulty and privilege experienced by individuals in society.