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Psychology: Paper 2 > Research Methds > Flashcards

Research Methds Flashcards

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1
Q

Fearures-
What is objectivity?

A

Data interpretation should not be affected by a person’s beliefs, expectations and biases

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2
Q

Features-
What is empirical methods?

A

Hypothesis should be tested by carrying out research using a recognised technique

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3
Q

Features-
What is replicability?

A

Studies should be able to be repeated to check reliability

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4
Q

Features-
What is falsifiability?

A

Studies should be able to be proven right or wrong

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5
Q

Features-
What is theory construction?

A

Theories explain human behaviour, they represent our best current understanding. Theories should be based on empirical evidence

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6
Q

Features-
What is hypothesis testing?

A

Hypothesis should be tested using empirical methods

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7
Q

Features-
What are paradigms?

A

Set ways of approaching and understanding something. A paradigm shift is when a new theory replaces an old one.

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8
Q

Features-
What is an independent variable?

A

The thing that is changed/manipulated

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9
Q

Features-
What is a dependant variable?

A

The thing you measure/ the thing being manipulated by the independent variable

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10
Q

Features-
What are demand characteristics?

A

When a participant changes their response to the experiment to appeal to the study

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11
Q

Features-
What does it mean when we say operationalise?

A

To make the study less vague

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12
Q

Experimental methods-
What are the experimental methods?

A

Laboratory, field, natural, quasi

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13
Q

Experimental methods-
What are two advantages of empirical methods?

A
  • high control over variables
  • increase replicability and reliability
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14
Q

Experimental methods-
What are two disadvantages of experimental methods?

A
  • artificial (low ecological validity)
  • demand characteristics
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15
Q

Experimental methods-
Which method has the highest level of control?

A

Lab

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16
Q

Experimental methods-
Where are field experiments conducted?

A

In a pps natural environment

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17
Q

Experimental methods-
In a natural experiment is the IV manipulated?

A

The IV is not directly manipulated and in a natural experiment it is something that was going to change anyway.

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18
Q

Experimental methods-
What is a quasi experiment?

A

It has an IV which forms a part of the participant (age/ gender) which cannot be controlled by the researcher

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19
Q

Experimental methods-
Replicability is an advantage of which experimental methods?

A

Lab and Quasi

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20
Q

Experimental methods-
Replicability is a disadvantage of which experimental methods?

A

Field and natural

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21
Q

Experimental methods-
Control is a strength of which methods?

A

Lab and quasi

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22
Q

Experimental methods-
Control is a disadvantage of which methods?

A

Field and natural

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23
Q

Experimental methods-
Demand characteristics are an advantage of which methods?

A

Field

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24
Q

Experimental Methods-
Demand characteristics are a disadvantage if which methods?

A

Lab

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25
Experimental methods- Ecological validity is a strength of which methods?
Field and natural
26
Experimental methods- Ecological validity is a disadvantage of which methods?
Lab
27
Experimental math odd- Which studies successfully allow the study of sensitive issues?
Natural
28
Experimental methods- Which method means the random allocation of roles is not possible?
Quasi
29
Experimental methods- In which method would it be difficult to find good samples?
Quasi
30
Experimental design- What are the three different types?
Independent, repeated measures and matched pairs
31
Experimental design- What is an independent design?
Different pps used in each condition
32
Experimental design- What are the advantages of independent design?
- no orders effects - less chance of demand characteristics
33
Experimental design- What are some disadvantages of independent design?
- more pps needed - individual differences
34
Experimental design- What is repeated measures experimental design?
Same participants are used in each condition
35
Experimental design- How do you counteract order effects in repeated measures design?
Counter balancing
36
Experimental design- What are the advantages of repeated measures design?
- no individual differences - fewer pps needed
37
Experimental design- What are some limitations of repeated measures?
- order effects may be present - if there is a gap between participants they may not return
38
Experimental design- What is the matched pairs experimental design?
Different but similar pps, but the participants are matched on characteristics
39
Experimental design- What are the advantages of matched pairs?
- no order effects - individual effect are minimised
40
Experimental design- What are the disadvantages of matched pairs?
- matching is difficult and time consuming - twice as many people needed
41
Hypothesis and variables- What is a hypothesis?
A testable and predictive statement often generated from a theory
42
Hypothesis and variables- What are the types of hypothesis?
Directional, non-directional and null
43
Hypothesis and variables- What is a directional hypothesis (one tail)?
States the direction of the predicted difference
44
Hypothesis and variables- What is a non-directional hypothesis (two tail)?
Predicts a difference but not a direction
45
Hypothesis and variables- What is a null hypothesis?
There is no difference between the conditions
46
Hypothesis and variables- What is a confounding variable?
Variables other than the IV that have effected the DV
47
Hypothesis and variables- What is extraneous variables?
Variables other than the IV that could have effected the DV
48
Hypothesis and variables- What is a participant variable?
Anything to do with the people used in the study, which could affect the DV
49
Hypothesis and variables- What is a situational variable?
Anything to do with the environment that the study is conducted in
50
Hypothesis and variables- What does standardise mean?
Keep everything the same for every participant
51
Hypothesis and variables- What are standardised instructions?
Set instructions for all participants
52
hypothesis and variables- What are standardised procedures?
Detailed instructions on how research should be carried out
53
Participant sampling- What are the five types of sampling?
Random, opportunity, volunteer , systematic and stratified
54
Participant sampling- What is random sampling?
Everyone in the target population has equal chance of being chosen
55
Participant sampling- What is opportunity sampling?
Select anyone who is convenient at the time of the study
56
Participant sampling- What is volunteer sampling?
Advertising for participants and participants volunteer
57
Participant sampling- What is systematic sampling?
A sampling frame is produced and every nth person is chosen
58
Participant sampling- What is stratified sampling?
Possible participants are put into categories, the final sample represents a percentage of each category
59
Participant sampling- What are the advantages of random sampling?
- unbiased - can be generalised
60
Participant sampling- What are disadvantages of random sampling?
- selected pps may not take part - difficult to get population details - not guaranteed a representative sample
61
Participant sampling- What are the advantages of opportunity sampling?
- more convenient
62
Participant sampling- What are the disadvantages of opportunity sampling?
- likely to be biased
63
Participant sampling- What are the advantages of volunteer sampling?
- practical - easy
64
Participant sampling- What are the disadvantages of volunteer sampling?
- lack of generalisability
65
Participant sampling- What is an advantage of systematic sampling?
- unbiased
66
Participant sampling - What are some disadvantages of systematic sampling?
- difficult to gather names - every nth person could be one gender
67
Types of data- What is qualitative data?
Represented in non-numerical forms (worded)
68
Types of data- What is quantitative data?
Data represented in numerical form (numbers)
69
Types of data- What are some advantages of quantitive data?
- easier to analyse - more scientific and objective
70
Types of data- What is a disadvantage of quantitive data?
- does not offer an in depth picture for researchers
71
Types of data- What is an advantage of qualitative data?
- offers in depth picture to researchers - tells us why a behaviour occurs
72
Types of data- What are some disadvantages of qualitative data?
- less scientific and more objective - harder to analyse and cannot be easily represented
73
Types of data- What is primary data?
researchers collect their own data
74
Types of data- What is secondary data?
Researchers analyse someone else’s data
75
Types of data- What is meta data?
A type of secondary data analysis which includes drawing conclusions from several studies with the same aim
76
Types of data- What are some advantages of primary data?
- can ensure all data is relevant to the aim - researcher is aware of all potential issues
77
Types of data- What are some disadvantages of primary data?
- time consuming and expensive - (likely) a smaller sample so samples may not be representative
78
Types of data- What are some advantages of secondary data?
- quicker and cheaper - more representative
79
types of data- What are some disadvantages of secondary data?
- not all data may be relevant - researcher isn’t sure of any potential issues
80
Observations- What are the two types of locations?
Naturalistic and controlled
81
Observations- What does naturalistic mean?
In a pps natural environment
82
Observations- What does it mean by controlled environment?
Controlled area chosen by the researcher
83
Observations- What are the two possible roles of the researcher?
- participant - non-participant
84
Observations- What does it mean by the researcher being a participant?
Researcher joins with the activities being carried out
85
Observations- What does it mean when the researcher is a non-participant?
Researcher is not directly involved in the experiment
86
Observations- What are the two types of identity that the reasearch ear can have?
Covert and overt
87
Observations- What does covert mean?
Under cover
88
Observation- What does overt mean?
Participants know they are being watched
89
Observations- What are the two ways that data can be recorded?
Structured and unstructured
90
Observations- What does it mean by the researcher recording data in a structured way?
With a tally sheet
91
Observations- What does it mean by the reader her recording data in an unstructured way?
Notes are made
92
Observations- What is event sampling?
only records specific events of interest
93
Observations- What is time sampling?
Observing and recording data at certain points
94
Observations- What is an issue with observations?
Different observers may observe different things
95
Observations- How is the reliability of observers assessed?
Inter-observer/inter-rater reliability
96
Ethics- What are ethical issues?
Conflict between the needs of the researcher and the ethical rights if the pps
97
Ethics- What are the four ethical guidelines?
- respect - integrity - social responsibility - maximise benefit, minimise harm
98
Ethics- What is meant by respect?
Show respect to pps as valuable people with valuable knowledge, showing respect for their culture and beliefs
99
Ethics- What is meant by integrity?
Researchers should demonstrate scientific integrity, researchers must ensure this research is correct
100
Ethics- What is social responsibility?
Researchers must remember that their main aim is to understand human nature
101
Ethics- What is meant by maximise benefit minimise harm?
Psychologist should aim to ensure that any potential harm to their pps is not greater than the harm faced in everyday life , the study should be stopped if a participant shows distress
102
Ethics- How do you deal with ethical issues?
- informed consent (form) - no deception - protection from harm - confidentiality - privacy - right to withdraw
103
Ethics- What is presumptive consent?
Asking a sample of the target population if they would take part
104
Ethics- What is prior-general consent?
Asking pps a period of time before the experiment
105
Ethics- What is in a debrief?
- aims - hypothesis - description of past research - why each task was included - how the participants performed - offers of concealing - opportunity to ask questions
106
Ethics- How are demand characteristics dealt with?
Single-blind trial, participants don’t know the aim of the study
107
Ethics- What are investigator effects?
The physical characteristics and personality of the researcher affect how the pps open up
108
Ethics- How do we deal with investigator effects?
Double-blind trial, experimenter and pps dint know the aim of the study
109
Reliability- What is realisability?
A measure of whether or not something stays the same
110
Reliability- What is internal reliability?
Whether or not a study is consistent within itself
111
Reliability- How can internal realiablity be assessed?
Split-half method (compare a participants first half of the test with the second half)
112
Reliability- What is external reliability?
Results are consistently found when the study is repeated
113
Reliability- How can external reliability be assessed?
Repeating the test over and over again
114
Reliability- What is inter-observer reliability?
The consistency between different researchers
115
Reliability- How can you assess the. Inter-observer reliability?
Researchers observing the same situation and using the same method to collect the data
116
Validity- What is validity?
Whether a researcher is measuring what they set out to measure
117
Validity- What is internal validity?
Concerns the research setting, it is the researcher measuring what they were trying to measure
118
Validity- experiments- Hoe can internal validity be affected in experiments?
If there are demand characteristics or extraneous variables they may not measure what they want to measure
119
Validity- questionaries/interviews How can internal validity be affected in Q/I?
Questions are not valid if they help the interview
120
Validity- observations- How is internal validity affected in observations?
Lacks validity if the behaviours they want are not observed
121
Validity- What is ecological validity?
the extent to which the research settings represent the real life settings which the researcher claims to investigate
122
Validity- What is population validity?
The extent to which the research applies to people outside of the participant sample
123
Validity- What is temporal validity?
The extent to which findings apply to other time periods
124
Validity- What is face validity?
Taking something at face value
125
Validity- What is content validity?
When an expert checks it over
126
Validity- What is construct validity?
It is actual research about the construct as a whole
127
Validity- What is predictive validity?
Score predicts alter behaviour
128
Validity- What is concurrent validity?
Comparing new test hypothesis and old established hypothesis
129
Pilot studies- What is a pilot study?
A smaller scale trial version of suggested studies to see their effectiveness and how to make improvements
130
Pilot studies- What does a pilot study test?
Effectiveness and validity
131
Self report technique- Is self-report techniques an experimental method? What is it?
No, a method where pps provide their own information and data, without interference
132
Self report techniques- What are the three ways to distribute?
Postal Internet Hand out
133
Self report techniques- What five features should a questionaries have?
- small number of questions - carefully ordered - Avoid jargon - avoid leading questions - open and closed questions
134
Self report technique- What type of questions does quantitive data use?
Closed questions (limited number if ways that the question can be answered, usually tick box)
135
Self report technique- What kind of questions does qualitative dara use?
Open questions (requires sentences for their answers, no two responses are the same. )
136
Self report techniques- evaluation- questionaries- What are the strengths?
- large amount if data collected quickly - convenient, as researcher does not ahve to be present
137
Self report techniques- evaluation- questionaries- What are the limitations?
- social desirability bias is a problem - pps may misread or misinterpret a question
138
Self report techniques- interviews What are the three types of interviews?
- structured= a set list of questions tan cannot be deviated from - unstructured= more like a conversation - semi-structured= set list of flexible questions
139
Self report techniques- evaluation- interviews- What are the strengths?
- flexible - can encourage honesty
140
Self report techniques- evaluation- interviews- What are the limitations?
- time consuming - investigator effects
141
Correlation- What is correlation?
The relationship between two variables
142
Correlation- How is correlation test carried out?
- two sets of data is taken from each participant and recorded - data is plotted on a scatter diagram - the correlation co-efficient is carried out
143
Correlation- What is positive correlation?
As one variable increases so does the other
144
Correlation- What is no correlation?
There appears to be no relationship between the variables
145
Correlation- What is negative correlation?
As one variable increases the other decreases
146
Descriptive statistics- measures if dispersion- What are the positives of using range?
- quick and easy to work out - takes into account the spread of data
147
Descriptive statistics- measures of dispersion- What are the negatives of range?
- can be affected by extreme scores - doesn’t take the full data set into account
148
Descriptive statistics- measures of dispersion- What are the positives of standard deviation?
- more sensitive than range as all vales are used - more precise
149
Descriptive statistics- measures of dispersion- What are the negatives of standard deviation?
- complicated to calculate - less meaningful if the data isn’t normally distabuted
150
Descriptive statistics- What does a high standard deviation mean?
Less consistent
151
Descriptive statistics- What does a low standard deviation mean?
More consistent
152
Descriptive statistics- bar charts- What kind of data does a bar charts show?
Nominal (categories)
153
descriptive statistics- bar chart- Why dint the bars touch?
Because categories are unrelated
154
descriptive statistics- histograms- What kind of data is a histogram used for?
Interval data
155
Descriptive statistics- histograms- Do the bars touch?
Yes, because data is related (it is continuous)
156
Descriptive statistics- frequency polygons- When do we use frequency polygons?
Used when data is interval data, but you want to represent separate pieces if data on the same scale
157
Descriptive statistics- frequency polygons- Where do you plot the dot?
In the midpoint of where you would plot the bar
158
Descriptive statistics- sign test- What are the must haves?
- looked for a difference between conditions - repeated measures or matched pairs - data is nominal
159
Descriptive statistics- sign test- What are the steps?
1. Record data 2. Work out the differences between scores 3. Record if each difference is positive or negative 4. The calculated value (s) is the value of how many of the lesser sign are counted
160
Descriptive statistics- sign test- When are the results not significant?
CALCULATED VALUE > critical value
161
Descriptive statistics- sign test- When is the answer significant?
Calculated value < CRITICAL VALUE
162
Descriptive statistics- tests- What is the neurotic?
Carrots Should Come mashed With Swede Under Roast Potatoes
163
Descriptive statistics- tests- What is the order of experimental designs along to top of the table?
Independent groups, repeated measures/ matched pairs, association/ correlation
164
Descriptive statistics- tests- What is the order of data types down teh side of the table?
Nominal Ordinal Interval
165
Descriptive statistics- tests- What does ‘Carrots’ stand for?
Chi Squared
166
Descriptive statistics- tests- What does ‘should’ stand for?
Sign test
167
Descriptive statistics- test- What odes ‘mashed’ stand for?
Mann Whitney
168
Descriptive statistics- tests- What does ‘with’ stand for?
Wilcoxon
169
Descriptive statistics- tests- What does ‘Swede’ stand for?
Spearman’s Rho
170
Descriptive statistics- tests- What does ‘under’ stand fro?
Unrelated test
171
Descriptive statistics- tests- What does ‘Roast’ stand for?
Related test
172
Descriptive statistics- tests- What does ‘potatoes’ stand for?
Petersons R
173
Descriptive statistics- What is nominal data?
Data can be separated int discrete categories E.g. eye colour
174
Descriptive statistics- What is ordinal data?
Ranked data E.g. position in a race
175
Descriptive statistics- What is interval data?
Data is on a standardised scale, so difference at each point is standardised E.g. temperature
176
Descriptive statistics- levels of significance- What does a 0.1 level of significance mean?
10% possibility that the results are due to chance 90% confidence level
177
Descriptive statistics- levels of significance- What does a 0.05 level of significance mean?
5% chance the results are due to chance 95% confidence level
178
Descriptive statistics- level of significance- What does a 0.01 level of significance mean?
1% chance that the results are due to chance 99% confidence level
179
Descriptive statistics- What is a type 1 error?
Accepting the experimental hypothesis when it is not actually true (More likely with a significance level of 0.1)
180
Descriptive statistics- What is a typo 2 error?
Rejecting the experimental hypothesis when it is actually true (More likely when the significance level os 0.01)
181
Descriptive statistics- qualitative data analysis- What is content analysis?
Analyses data into themes or categories and identifying how common each theme is
182
Descriptive statistics- qualitative analysis- What is thematic analysis?
Some researchers are unhappy with qualitative data to quantitive data conversion, so we use thematic analysis instead
183
Descriptive statistics- content analysis- What are the steps to content analysis?
1. The material you decide to analysis must be representative of the qualitative data as a whole 2. Decide on categories or themes 3. Put these themes into a tally chart and mark every time you see a particulate theme present 4. Add up how many times you see each theme and draw conditions based on this
184
Economy- how has minority rights had an effect on the economy?
Suffragettes and suffragists - p= more Jobs, more tax, better for the economy - n= costed £2 million in work absences
185
Economy- attachment- How has attachment studies affected the economy?
Role of the fathers- - loss for the economy, more paid leave
186
Economy- psychopathology- How has research into psychopathology affected the economy?
Medication - Costs he NHS money in the short term - long term, better medication can be prescribed increasing the amount of time that people work, as their mental health will be better
187
Peer review- What is peer review?
Specialists in areas specific to the journal will review new research before it is published
188
Peer review- What is the process of peer review?
Psychologists, in a similar field, will read a report and decide if it should be published.
189
Peer review- What are the things considered when reading a report?
Validity Significance Originality How appropriate the method is and designs are
190
Peer review- What is the purpose of peer review?
To ensure quality, relevance, accuracy and how good the design is
191
Peer review- evaluation- What are the strengths of peer review?
- makes a piece of research more valid - makes sure research is accurate - acts as a quality check, so info can be trusted
192
Peer review- evaluation- What are the limitations of peer review?
- reviewer might be biased - hard to find experts - slow, expensive and subjective and also difficult to detect fraud. - researchers may not attempt to publish in a ‘lesser’ journal
193
Case studies- What is a longitudinal case study?
Follows a person throughout their whole life
194
Case studies- What is a retrospective case study?
Asking people to recall events from their life
195
Case studies- What are case studies?
- a non-experimental method - uses in one off or unusual cases - uses qualitative data and focuses in behaviour
196
Case studies- Do they have high or low ecological validity?
High
197
Case studies- Do they have high or low generalisability?
Low
198
Case studies- Do they have high or low replicability?
Low
199
Case studies- evaluation- What are the strength s of case studies?
- provides rich qualitative data (gives us real insight into human behaviour) - high ecological validity
200
Case studies- evaluation- What are limitations of case studies?
- low generalisability - low replicability

Psychology: Paper 2 (3 decks)

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