Research Methods Flashcards

(239 cards)

1
Q

How do you work out the mean

A

Add all the values together then divide by the number of values

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2
Q

What’s a strength of using mean as a measure of central tendency

A

More sensitive as it uses all score and not just a select few

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3
Q

What’s a weakness of using mean as a measure of central tendency

A

Can be easily distorted if there is outliers and therefore be unrepresentative

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4
Q

How do you work out the median as a central tendency

A

All the values are arranged into order and the middle value is the median

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5
Q

What is a strength of using the median

A

It’s not affected by outliers so still representative

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6
Q

What’s a weakness of using a median as a central tendency

A

May not be representative as does not take into account all data

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7
Q

How do you work out the mode

A

The most frequent recurring number

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8
Q

What’s a strength with using the mode

A

Not effected by outliers

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9
Q

What’s a weakness of using a mode

A

Can be unrepresentative and there isn’t always a mode

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10
Q

How do you work out the range

A

The highest number takeaway the lowest number

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11
Q

What’s a strength of using the range as a measure of central tendency

A

It gives a basic indication of the spread of scores

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12
Q

What’s a weakness of using the range as a measure of dispersion

A

Does not indicate how groups are scored around the mean

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13
Q

What is a self report

A

Any method where a person is asked to state or explain their own thoughts/feelings

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14
Q

What are ethical concerns?

A

Withdraw
Consent
Confidentiality
Deception
Protection from harm and abuse

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15
Q

How can we ensure consent is given

A

Obtain prior general consent - inform the participant they will not be told everything and may be deceived

Obtain fully informed consent - ask the participants to formally consent to the research after being given comprehensive details about the aims and procedures

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16
Q

How can we ensure we do not decept people

A

After the research is completed inform participants of the true aims of the research and debrief the participants so they know they can leave the research

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17
Q

How can we ensure people know they have the right to withdraw

A

Provide people with the right to withdraw at any point in the study

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18
Q

How do we maintain confidentiality

A

Avoid collecting personal details from participants

Maintain anonymity - false names or numbers to identify participants

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19
Q

How do we ensure participants in a study are protected from harm

A

Terminate research if harm is likely

Provide right to withdraw

Debrief participants

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20
Q

What is a bias sample

A

Where the sample collected is distorted in some way and does not represent the target population

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21
Q

What is meant by ‘generalising research’

A

Results from the sample can be applied to the target population

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22
Q

How is random sampling conducted

A

Every member of target population has equal chance of being picked

Names may be put in a hat

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23
Q

What is a strength of using random sampling

A

No bias

Increases chance sample will be representative

Generalisable

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24
Q

What is a weakness of using random sampling

A

Not practical
If a population is large or too small

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25
What is systematic sampling
Every nth member of target population to form sample E.g every 10th person on a register
26
What is a strength of using systematic sampling
There is no bias Representative Generalisable
27
What is a weakness of using systematic sampling
It is not truly unbiased unless you select your starting point randomly
28
What is stratified sampling
A small scale reproduction of the target population Divide the target population into categories (E.g age) Use random allocation to ensure one person from each category in the proportions they exist in the target population
29
What is a strength of using stratified sampling
There is no bias Random selection uses relevant categories Increases chance of stratified sampling being representative Allows generalisations
30
What is a weakness of using stratified sampling
Requires a detailed knowledge of target population which may not be available Time consuming
31
What is opportunity sampling
Researcher decides type of participant needed and approaches anyone who appears suitable
32
What is a strength of using opportunity sampling
It is relatively quick and convenient to collect Not required to identify all members
33
What is a weakness of opportunity sampling
It is likely to be biased as it excludes certain types of participants Makes it unrepresentative Can not be generalised
34
What is volunteer sampling
Researcher advertises for participants Participants chose themselves by replying to the advert
35
What is a strength of using volunteer sampling
Creating a sample fairly easy in comparison to other techniques as participants do not need to be found
36
What is a weakness of volunteer sampling
Likely to be biased as volunteers tend to be a certain kind of individual Can not be generalised
37
Why is standard deviation better than the range
SD includes all data and is not affected by outliers
38
What is content analysis
A form of indirect observation Research does not observe a person but artefacts they produced Eg a diary
39
What are some examples of content analysis
Films Diaries Interviews
40
What do we record behaviour on during an observation
Behavioural grid
41
Does content analysis use qualitative or quantitative data
Quantitative
42
What is the 5 step procedure of content analysis
Data is collected Researcher reads through or examines the data, makes themselves familiar Researcher identifies coding units Data is analysed by applying coding units Tally is made of the numbers of times that a coding unit appears
43
What is an aim
A general statement outlining what the researcher intends to study
44
What is an independent variable
The variable being manipulated usually by the researcher
45
What is the dependant variable
The variable that is measured after it is influenced by the independent variable
46
What is an extraneous variables
A variable other than the IV that had manipulated the DV
47
What is a hypothesis
A testable statement which makes a prediction about the results.
48
What is an experimental hypothesis
This predicts the IV will have an effect on the DV
49
What is a confounding variable
A variable which may affect the DV and is not accounted for
50
What 3 factors are needed to use a parametric test
Homogeneity of variance Normal distribution Interval data
51
Define Reliability
How consistent the findings / measuring devices are Something is said to be reliable if it produces consistently similar results
52
Define validity
The extent to which an effect results / measuring device are genuine or meaningful Does it measure what it’s supposed to
53
What is internal validity
Concerned with what goes on in the study Whether in an experiment the findings have been caused by the independent variable
54
What is external validity
The extent to which the findings can be generalised beyond the specific research Ecological + Temporal
55
What is ecological validity
The extent to which findings from one study can be generalised to other settings
56
What is temporal validity
The extent to which findings from one study can be obtained at other times or in different historical era
57
How can you assess the reliability of a test (individual )
Test - retest
58
What is test - retest
Replicating the research and comparing the results with the original results Correlate the two findings
59
What should the time be in between test-retests and why
2 weeks Long enough to forget test Short enough for personality to not change
60
How can we assess reliability using inter-observer reliability
2 or more observers record data from same participants situation Use same behavioural grids Correlate their results
61
What must a correlation coefficient be when assessing reliability
+0.8
62
Name the ways of assessing validity
Face validity Concurrent validity
63
What is face validity (assessing validity)
Looking at it and confirming that it does measure what it claims Ask an expert to look at it
64
What is concurrent validity
Checking whether the results from one test or scale are close to or match those obtained on another recognised measure of the same behaviour
65
What is a peer review
A process that contributes to the scientific status of psychology Involved the scrutiny and checking of research by independent experts to act as quality assurance
66
Where/How is psychological work published
In a journal
67
What is a peer (peer assessment)
Someone working in the same field
68
What are the six steps of peer review
Researcher conducts research Writes report Report is sent for potential publication Report sent for peer review Sent back to editor Editor makes final Desicion
69
What are the 7 purposes of peer review
Check that - report is written in agreed format - a good research design used - written with enough detail to be reliable - high quality - not plagiarised - adds to subject knowledge - not fraudulent
70
What is thematic analysis
One way to generate qualitative data through themes in documents
71
What is a theme (thematic analysis)
Any idea that keeps occurring in the data. Themes are more descriptive than behavioural categories
72
Explain the process of thematic analysis
Researcher starts with transcript of data Read data Get a feel of themes propping up (not predetermined) Select these as themes Select quotes to support
73
How is the reliability of content analysis checked
Inter rater reliability Frequencies compared to degree of statement by correlation results Must be a correlation of 0.8 to be reliable
74
3 strengths of content analysis
Uses artefacts that have been produced is a very ethical way to conduct research. If the data is in the public domain permission does not have to be sought as the data already exists High ecological validity, based on observations of real artefacts produced by people. Relevant to real like as it already exists and is not made for research purposes. A flexible way to conduct research as it can lead to both quantitative and qualitative data. A practical way to investigate topic if we cannot manipulate IV
75
3 strengths of thematic analysis
Uses artefacts that have been produced is a very ethical way to conduct research. If the data is in the public domain permission does not have to be sought as the data already exists High ecological validity, based on observations of real artefacts produced by people. Relevant to real like as it already exists and is not made for research purposes. A flexible way to conduct research as it can lead to both quantitative and qualitative data. A practical way to investigate topic if we cannot manipulate IV
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2 weaknesses thematic analysis
Researcher bias possible Different observers may interpret data differently. Artefacts may be studied out of context to which they were produced leading researchers to add their own interpretations of data This leads to data analysis bring subjective and is a particular issue Very difficult to replicate - unreliable as each reading is unique. Interpretations and subjective and therefore un-scientific analysis
77
1 weakness of content analysis
Observer bias possible Different observers may interpret data differently. Artefacts may be studied out of context to which they were produced leading researchers to add their own interpretations of data This leads to data analysis bring subjective and is a particular issue
78
What are the ways of assessing reliability
Test-retest Inter observer reliability
79
Explain test- retest as a way of assessing reliability
A study is repeated using same participants two weeks later If similar results found then findings reliable Common way to assess reliability of tests, questionnaires, interviews Can also be used to test reliability of experiments
80
Explain inter observer reliability as a way of assessing reliability
Assesses whether all researchers involved in a specific investigation are gathering consistent observations or ratings. If similar results obtained then findings are reliable To assess similar results Two sets of data correlated using statistical test Must have correlation of 0.8 or above
81
How can reliability be improved in experiments
Using standardised procedures to ensure the same procedures are used to measure dependant variable for all participants More than one measurement from each participant and average score
82
How can reliability be improved in questionnaires or psychological tests
Ensure questions worded well - avoid leading or ambiguous questions that might persuade participants to provide different responses on different occasions Replace open questions with closed questions
83
How can reliability be improved in interviews
Use the same interviewer for all participants to ensure studied in the same way Ensure interviewers are properly trained to avoid leading participants Ensure questions carefully worded, use structured interview where possible
84
How can reliability be improved for observational techniques
Ensure behavioural categories have been operationalised and do not overlap Behavioural categories should cover all examples of behaviour being studied to same standard Observes should be trained to use a coding system to ensure consistency
85
What is general standardisation
Everything is the same for every participant
86
What is meant for a test to have high concurrent validity
Where there is close agreement between the data produced by the new test and an already established test. Close agreement is when the correlation between the two sets exceeeds +0.8
87
What are the types of experiments
Laboratory Field Natural Quasi
88
Explain what happens in a laboratory experiment
Takes place in a controlled setting
89
What is a strength and weakness of using a laboratory experiment
It is possible to control the environment making replication easier and increasing reliability The environment is artificial meaning the behaviour seen may lack realism too
90
How do we check the reliability of content analysis
Analysts analyse material independently from each other using same coding units. Compare frequencies to see degree of agreement. Correlation coefficient must be +0.8 and above to be reliable
91
How do you conduct thematic analysis
Get transcript of data Read data Get a feel for themes popping up (not predetermined) Select these as themes Select quotes to support (qualitative)
92
Strengths of content and thematic analysis
Strength - ethical as use artifacts that have already been produced, if the artefact is in public domain do not have to get consent as data already exists. Strength - High ecological validity based on observations of real artefacts produced by people relevant to real life as already exists and not made for research purposes
93
Weakness of content and thematic analysis
Thematic - difficult to replicate as each reading on text is unique to subjective interpretations. Un scientific Thematic & content - low inter rater reliability - subjective different themes rated and interpreted differently
94
What is reliability
How much we can depend on a measurement or set of findings
95
How do we assess reliability
Test retest Inter-observer reliability
96
What is the test retest method of assessing reliability
Study is repeated using same participants. If similar findings found then findings are reliable. It is necessary to consider amount of time that elapses between each year (10 days)
97
What is inter observer reliability
Way of assessing if observers are gathering consistent observations. If similar results are obtained by all researchers then findings are reliable. Inter observer results are correlated using statistical test and a correlation coefficient of +0.8 or above suggests reliability
98
How do we improve reliability in experiments
Use a standardised procedure to ensure same procedures are used to measure DV for all participants Take more than one measurement from each participant and record average score
99
How do we improve reliability in questionnaires
Avoid leading questions Replace open questions with closed questions
100
How do we improve reliability in interviews
Use the same interviewer Insure interviewer is probably trained Use structured interviews
101
How do we improve reliability in observational techniques
Ensure behavioural categories operationalised (coding unit) All observes trained
102
What is validity
Concerned whether findings from a study are genuine and accurate
103
What is internal validity
Whether in an experiment the findings have been caused by the independent variable
104
What is ecological validity
Whether the context from one study can be generalised to other settings
105
What is temporal validity
The extent to which findings from one study can be obtained at other times (Holding truth over time)
106
How do we assess validity
Face validity Concurrent validity
107
What is face validity
Getting an expert to look at the test to confirm it measures what it’s claiming
108
What is concurrent validity
Comparing a test, measure or scale with an already established test using a correlation
109
How to improve validity in experiments
Use standardised procedure or double blind design Use a control group Use tasks participants would do everyday
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How to improve validity in questionnaires
Allow participants to be anonymous to increase likely hood of honest response
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How to improve validity in interviews
Ensure all interviewers are properly trained
112
How to improve validity in observational techniques
Conduct covert observations where possible Ensure observers properly trained
113
What is the name of the table you put your results in, in chi squared
Contingency table
114
Why do we use a bar chart
Because the data is discrete non-continuous data
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What should be in the title of the bar chart
What graph it is and both variables e.g a bar chart to show responses by participant to a fair and unfair offer
116
What is a laboratory experiment
An environment that is specifically designed so the experiment can have full control over any extraneous variables which could possibly influence the results
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What is a strength of using a laboratory experiment
High control over extraneous variables and the IV and DV are carefully operationalised which leads to greater validity and objectivity in research studies Cause and effect can be determined since extraneous variables are controlled so only the variable responsible for any change in the DV will be the IV lab experiments are easy to replicate due to standardised procedures meaning the experiment can be repeated to check consistency over time
118
What are weaknesses of laboratory experiments
Participants behaviour may be unnatural due to the high degree of control and therefore it may be difficult to generalise the results to other settings. Participants may show demand characteristics if they know they’re being watched Possible ethical issues - deception from harm
119
What is a field experiment
The IV is deliberately manipulated by the experimenter, however the experiment takes place in a participants usual environment e.g school. There is some control over extraneous variables although less than in a lab experiment. Participants tend to be unaware they are taking part in this type of experiment
120
What is a strength of field experiments
Participants behaviour is likely to be natural as participants are in their usual environment, therefore their behaviour is genuine Reduced likelihood of demand characteristics, participants are not usually aware they are being tested so will be less likely to try and guess what behaviour is expected from them
121
What are weaknesses of field experiments
They can be difficult to replicate - due to low levels of control, this means it is difficult to repeat the study Exacrly to see if similar results can be obtained Cause and effect is more difficult to determine - since not all extraneous variables are controlled Possible ethical issues - consent, deception
122
What is a natural experiment
The IV has not been deliberately manipulated but has occurred naturally. Take place in participants usual environment No control over extraneous variables, participants not aware they’re taking part
123
What is a strength of natural experiments
Participants behaviour is natural Reduced likelihood of demand characteristics Allows the investigation of situations that are not usually possible
124
What are limitations of natural experiments
Difficult if not impossible to replicate due to lack of control Cause and effect can not be determined Possible ethical issues
125
What is a quasi experiment
The IV had not been deliberately manipulated by the experiment and had occurred naturally but the IV is a characteristic of the participant such as age Takes place in artificial setting e.g seeing if males or females do better in exams the IV is not manipulated
126
Strength of quasi experiments
Allows investigation of situations that are not usually possible
127
Limitation of quasi experiments
Cause and effect can be more difficult to determine since only some extraneous variables are controlled
128
What is an extraneous variable
A general term to describe any variable that affects the DV which is not the IV
129
What is a confounding variable
A specific example of extraneous variable, which is why variable which may affect the DV other than the IV
130
What are participant variables
Related to the participants involved eg age gender Can be controlled by using repeated measures
131
What are demand characteristics
When participants are concious they are taking part in psychological research which may lead to them looking for cues about how they are expected to behave and behaving in that way Can be controlled by using a single blind design
132
What are investigator effects
Anything a researcher does that has an effect on a participants performance in a study other than what was intended Can be controlled through standardisation
133
What are order effects
Refers to order participants do conditions Participants could do better in condition due to practice or worse due to boredom Counterbalancing and randomisation could control this
134
What is standardisation
A way of controlling situational variables Using a standardised procedure that keeps everything other than the IV the same
135
What is counterbalancing
A way to control order effects If two conditions, half the participants complete condition A first and half complete condition B first
136
What is randomisation
A way to control order effects if there is more than two conditions Randomly select particpants to complete each condition first
137
What is random allocation
A way to control participant variables Participants allocated to group randomly
138
What is a single blind design
Participants are not made aware of the research aim or which experimental design they have been placed in which reduces the chances of them changing their behaviour to match what they think is expected of them - reduces demand characteristics
139
What is a pilot study
A small scale trial run of a study
140
What is the aim of a pilot study
To work out if certain aspects of the design work or need to be modified
141
4 things a researcher looks at in a pilot study
Whether participants understand instructions Whether participants guess the sim of the study Whether participants get bored Timings and level of difficulty of tasks
142
What is a naturalistic observation
Observing behaviour in a natural setting No attempt to influence the environment
143
Strength and weakness of naturalistic environments
Strength - participants behaviour likely to be natural Weakness - researcher had little control, can be difficult to replicate
144
What is a controlled observation
Observing behaviour in a prepared situation created by the researcher e.g AINSWORTH
145
What is a strength and weakness of controlled observations
Strength - researcher has good control over the situation Weakness - participants behaviour may be unnatural
146
What is an overt observation
Participants are aware they are being observed
147
Strength and weakness of overt observations
Strength - more ethical than covert observations as participants know they are being watched Weakness - participants may alter their behaviour which means their behaviour may not be a genuine reflection of how they act
148
What is a covert observation
When the participants are unaware they are being watched
149
Strength and weakness of covert observation
Strength - participants unaware they’re being watched so behaviour likely to be natural Weakness - less ethical
150
What is a participant observation
The researcher becomes part of the group of people being observed
151
Strength and weakness of participant observation
Strength - data collected is likely to be accurate as researcher gets first hand insight into people’s life and setting Weakness - data may lack validity as researcher may get too involved and find it difficult to observe group
152
What is a non participant observation
Researcher does not become part of the group and watches from a distance
153
Strength and weakness of non participant observation
Strength - data collected is likely to be valid as researcher is emotionally detached from group and participants behave naturally Weakness - data may be immaculate as the meaning of the participants behaviour is not clear
154
What are behavioural categories
Observations need to be objectified so they can be measured and recorded so behaviour can be precisely defined and made observable
155
What are two types of sampling procedures
Event sampling Time sampling
156
What is event sampling
Recording each time a specific behaviour occurs in individuals for example each time a person smiles in a 10 minute period
157
What is time sampling
Involves recording behaviour at set time intervals e.g every 3 minutes noting down what a student is doing
158
What is a meta analysis
Secondary data that combines large number of studies with similar research
159
Strength and weakness of meta analysis
Strength - volume of data analysed is much larger than us usually possible to collect by a researcher in one single investigation Weakness - researcher may be biased in which data they select as it’s not usually possible to collect all of the data
160
What is an example of meta analysis
Izijendoorn and Kroonenberg in cultural attachment types
161
What are 3 characteristics of a normal distribution
Mean, median and mode are all in the exact midpoint Distribution is symmetrical around this mid point Dispersion scores either side of the mid point are consistent and can be expressed in standard deviation
162
What side is the skew if it is positively skewed
Highest point left and goes down
163
What side is the skew if it is negatively skewed
Starts flat and goes up, highest on right side
164
What is thematic analysis
One way to generate qualitative data
165
What are the 4 steps of thematic analysis
1) select data and spend time looking through it 2) get a feel for what themes appear in the data (a theme is any idea that is re-occurring through data) 3) once researcher has got a feel for themes, collect more data 4) research will be written up and where appropriate will include quotes to support themes identified
166
Strengths of thematic analysis
Very ethical way to research as artefacts in public domain do not require permission to be sought High ecological validity based on observations of real artefacts produced by people Flexible way to conduct research can lead to quantitative and qualitative research
167
Weakness of thematic analysis
Possibility of observer bias, different observers may interpret data differently. Artefacts may also be studied outside context it was produced for May be difficult to replicate as each reading of the text is unique
168
How do we test reliability
Test retest Inter observer reliability
169
What is test retest
Study repeated using same participants, two weeks after original study so participants can forget study but not change personality. Findings are correlated and if correlation is above 0.8 it is reliable
170
How do we test reliability using inter observer reliability
More than one researcher compared whether they have gathered consistent findings by correlating their findings to see if there is a positive correlation of 0.&
171
How can reliability be improved in experiments
Standardised procedures - so same procedures used to measure dependant variable Take more than one measurement from each participant and work our average score
172
How can reliability be improved in questionnaires
Avoid leading or ambiguous questions that might persuade participants to respond in a certain way Replace open questions with closed questions so they are interpreted the same way by other researchers
173
How can reliability be improved in interviews
Use same interviewer for all participants Ensure all interviewers have proper training to avoid leading participants Ensure questions are carefully worded / if possible use a structured interview
174
How can reliability be improved in observational techniques
Ensure behavioural categories have been operationalised and do not overlap or cause confusion Behavioural categories should cover all possible examples of the behaviour being studied Observers should be trained to use a coding system which should be used consistently
175
How do we assess validity
Face validity Concurrent validity
176
How do we improve validity in experiments
Use standardised procedures or double blind studies to reduce investigator effects Use independent groups Use a control group - so researcher can have a better idea if results are really due to the independent variable
177
How do we improve validity in questionnaires
Allow participants to remain anonymous to increase likelihood of honest responses Only include questions thag measure what is supposed to be measured
178
How do we improve validity in interviews
Ensure all interviewers are properly trained Only include questions that measure what is supposed to be measured
179
How do we improve validity in observational techniques
Conduct covert observations whwre possible as participants less likely to change behaviour Ensure behavioural categories well operationalised so they measure the intended behaviour Limit observer bias by ensuring observers are properly trained
180
How do we improve validity in qualitative methods such as unstructured interviews
Use direct quotes from participants Triangulation - use servers methods to collect data
181
What are descriptive statistics
Provide summary of data collected eg mean range
182
What are descriptive statistics
Provide a summary of data collected e.g mean and range
183
Where would you plot the points on a distribution graph
Mode = highest point Median = middle point Mean = lowest point
184
How to do the sign test
1) subtract one column from the other and write whether it is a + or - number 2) add up total of + and - 3) least occurring sign is calculated value 4) N is number of participants after those who had difference of 0 5) compare calculated value with critical value
185
What are inferential statistics
Allows us to conclude whether any difference or relationshup found is statistically significant. Involves selecting an appropriate statistical test which allows researcher to determine likelihood results have occurred through chance. At end of statistical test researcher will support one of their hypothesis and reject the other
186
What do statistical tests tell us
Whether difference or relationship between variables is statistically significant or due to chance
187
What is significance
A statistical term indicating that the research findings are sufficiently strong to enable a researcher to reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis
188
What does it mean if results are statistically significant
Low probability the results are due to chance
189
What does it mean if results are statistically in-significant
High probability results are due to chance
190
What is probability
A numerical measure of the likelihood that certain events will occur
191
What is a significance level
A measure of probability
192
What is the most commonly selected significance level
5% or 0.005 If results are statistically significant the likelihood of their results Coming about through chance is equal to or less than 5%
193
What is a stringent level of significance
1% or 0.01 Results are statistically significant if likelihood of results being chsnce is equal to or less than 1%
194
What is the most lenient level of significance
10% or 0.1 Researcher finds results are statistically significant if the likelihood of their results coming about theough chance is equal to or less than 10%
195
In medical research what level of significance should be used
1% most stringent
196
What is a type 1 error
An error of optimists Rejecting the bull hypothesis when there is a good possibility results are due to chance Often cashed by using significance that is too lenient
197
What is a type 2 error
An error of pessimists Supporting null hypothesis when there is a good possibility results where significant Often caused by using a significant level that is so stringent
198
Why is the 5% level of significance generally accepted
Perfect balance between making a type one and type two error Too lenient would make type 1 error and too stringent could make type two error. 5% is a compromise
199
What is nominal data
Data that appears in categories. Frequency data. Level of measurement that is least detailed e.g number of males or females
200
What is ordinal data
Intervals between each value are unequal - for example positions in a running race. We do not know the difference between first and second place
201
What is interval data
Can be ordered and intervals are equal Example is temperature
202
What questions to ask when choosing statistical test
Test of difference or relationship What experiment was used Association or correlation What level of data
203
What test is used looking for an association
Chi squared
204
What test is used looking for a correlation using ordinal data
Spearman’s rho
205
What test is used looking for a correlation at interval data
Pearson r
206
What test is used looking for a difference using ordinal data and repeated measures
Wilcoxon
207
What test is used looking for a difference independent groups nominal data
Chi squared
208
What test is used using independent groups looking for a difference with interval data
Unrelated t test
209
What are non parametric tests
Spearman’s rho Wilcoxon Mann whitney Chi squared Sign test
210
What are parametric tests
Perasons r Related t test Unrelated t test
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When do we use the sign test
Looking for a difference between two conditions Using recreated measures or matched pairs Nominal data
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What conditions must be satisfied to use a parametric test
Interval data Normal distribution Homogeneity of variance
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How do you work out degrees of freedom
Number of columns - 1 times Number of rows - 1
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What needs to be included in consent forms
Purpose of the study Length of time the participants will be required Where the participants will need to be Right to withdraw Confidentiality Protection from harm
215
What must be included in standardised instructions
Clear instructions Procedure explained with no confusing terminology Ask participants if they understand what they have to do Participants can withdraw anytime
216
What do you include in a debriefing
Thank the participants for taking part Explain the main aims of the study and where appropriate tell participants about any other groups of participants Ask participants if they are happy for their data to be used in the investigation Ask participants if they have questions Ask participants if they would like a copy of the write up
217
What is qualitative research
Less formulaic than quantitive, greater variety within research. Absence of statistical analysis Unlikely to include hypothesis
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What needs to be included when designing a study
Aims and hypothesis Method Participants Procedures Results
219
Why are graphs used
To pictorially summarise results and show trends or patterns
220
Why are bar charts used
To represent the frequencies on non continuous data
221
Why are histograms used
To represent continuous data No gaps between bars
222
Why are scattergraphs used
To represent correlational data No need to draw a line of best fit
223
What should be in the graph title
Reference to the graph Type of relationship Both variables
224
What is science
A systematic way of gaining knowledge through the use of empirical methods of investigation
225
What are the 8 features of science
Construct a theory Hypothesis testing Objectivity Replicability Empirical method Falsifiability Paradigms Paradigms shift
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What is hypothesis testing
A feature of science that predicts what is believed to be true. This is then investigated to see if researcher was correct
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What is objectivity
Feature of science Information gathered from investigation is not influenced in anyway by the person who carries out the research & information does not need to be interpreted
228
What is replicability
Feature of science Being able to copy an investigation using same methods and procedures to see if findings are similar. Ideally similar findings should be found
229
What is theory construction
A framework / explanation for describing a phenomenon, may be based on observations about the world or empirical data derived from hypothesis testing. If hypothesis is repeatedly tested and results consistently support hypothesis a theory is constructed that explains behaviour
230
What is falsifiability
Popper said even if a theory had been tested and supported many times we can not say the theory is true. It is just enhancing our knowledge Popper said ‘a good scientific theory’ can be tested to see if it’s false This is why we do not use phrases such as ‘this proves’
231
What are paradigms and paradigms shifts
A paradigm is a shared set of assumptions or beliefs on how behaviour is studied or explained Progress occurs when a small number of scientists begin to question an existing paradigm and then provide evidence against it. When enough evidence has been put forward change will occur. This is a paradigm shift
232
Discuss whether scientific method is appropriate for psychology
- uses scientific models gives it more credibility - scientific method gives psychology practical applications - conventional scientific research tends to involve studying people in artificial environments which is unnatural - scientific method emphasised control which is almost impossible with people - critics claim objectivity in psychological research is impossible
233
What are limitations of peer review
- in some cases it does not detect Freud or malpractice - can suffer from bias towards positive findings. Negative findings are rarely published. Leads to important findings not being published. The file drawer problem Bias in favour of established research areas Time consuming and expensive can take months of years to publish, delaying publication of important findings
234
How does research effect the economy
Reduced cost on judicial system and NHS. Potential reduction in crimes and catching more offenders from cog interview Attachment - flexible working arrangements adopted eg father csn take on most of childcare and work part time if mother earns more - maximise income and contribute more to economy Mental illness - therapies people stay in work economy
235
What are the sections in order in a scientific report
Abstract Introduction Method Results Discussion References
236
What is included in an abstract of a scientific report
Summary (200 words) of whole report Include: Aims and hypotheses Background research Method Results Conclusions
237
How do you work out percentage increase
Difference divided by original times 100
238
How to work out percentage decrease
Starting value - ending value divided by starting value times 100
239
What does standard deviation measure
Consistency