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Paper 2 Psychology > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

1
Q

Objectivity

A

When all sources of personal bias are minimised to not distort or influence the research process

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2
Q

Replicability

A

The extent to which scientific procdures and results can be repeated by other researchers

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3
Q

Empirical method

A

Scientific approaches that are based on the gathering of evidence through direct observation and experience

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4
Q

Falsifiability

A

The principle that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proved untrue

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5
Q

Issue of a study without objectivity

A

Would lead to subjectivity

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6
Q

Issue of a study without replicability

A

If it cant be repeated, it may be linked to bias

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7
Q

Issue of a study without an empirical method

A

If not used, may see more researcher bias and lack objectivity

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8
Q

Theory

A

A framework/explanation for describing a phenomenon. It may be based on observations about the world or on empirical data derived from hypothesis testing

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9
Q

Theory construction

A

The creation of a framework or explanation for describing a phenomenon on the basis of direct observation or empirical data

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10
Q

Hypothesis testing

A

When it is possible to make clear and precise prediction on the basis of a theory

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11
Q

Paradigm

A

A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline

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12
Q

Paradigm shift

A

The result of a scientific revolution in that a significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline occurs

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13
Q

Issues of a study without a theory

A

No aim, wont be looking for anything specific

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14
Q

Case study

A

An in-depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, group, institution or event
-> longitudinal

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15
Q

Strentghs of case studies

A
  • foundation to start research
  • detailed studies
  • investigates rare instances of behaviour
  • rich in detail
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16
Q

Limitations case studies

A

-> aren’t controlled (manipulation of results)
-> difficult to generalise - occasionally ideographic
-> lacks objectivity
-> often a personal account, issue with self report
-> observers bias = reduced objectivity and validity
-> possibility of psychological harm

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17
Q

Content analysis

A

A research technique that enables the indirect study of behaviour by examining communications that other people produce -> may involve either qualitative or quantitative analysis, or both

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18
Q

Content analysis process

A

Data is collected
Researcher reads through or examines the data, making themselves familiar with it
The researcher identifies coding units
The data is analysed by applying the coding units
A tally is made of the number of times that a coding unit appears

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19
Q

Coding

A

Identifying behavioural categories

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20
Q

Strengths of content analysis

A

-> replicability, can be tested for reliability with inter-observe reliability
-> produced qualitative and quantitative data
-> high ecological validity, produced by people in real life, current and relevant research
-> avoids ethical issues, all the media is already present in public domain / no issues with obtaining permission

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21
Q

Limitations of content analysis

A

-> using categories is very subjective, observer bias - because of the differing interpretation of the meaning of categories
-> content analysis may be cultural bias, written in another langauge

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22
Q

Thematic analysis

A
  • a form of consent analysis whereby the outcome is qualitative
  • involved identifying themes, which refers to an idea that is implicit or explicit that is recurrent
  • report will be written up referring to these themes and quoting specific evidence from the samples used
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23
Q

Strengths of thematic analysis

A

-> provides researchers with flexibility in the way that they approach data
-> uses a subjective approach so that the researcher can apply a range of theories to it

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24
Q

Limitation of thematic analysis

A

-> researcher bias can happen as the researcher has to interpret the data
-> it may lack validity as the data has not been collected under controlled conditioned
-> very time consuming

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25
Q

Reliability

A

How consistent the finding from an investigation or measuring device are. If a measuring device is said to be reliable if it produces consistent results every time it is used

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26
Q

Inter-observer reliability

A

Comparing the data between two or more observers
- calculated as a correlation coefficient between two sets of scores from independent observes
(If the number is greater than +.80 then reliability is good)

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27
Q

Improving the reliability of observational techniques

A
  • operationalise behaviour categories
  • observers to practice or become trained in using behaviour categories
  • discussions decision with each other so that can apply categories more consistently
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28
Q

Assessing reliability of self-report techniques

A

Test-retest:
- repeating the test after a short interval on the same person
- scores for each person and compared
- this shows the extent to which the test, or other measure, produces the same answer
- also calculated as a coreelation coefficient

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29
Q

Improving reliability of self-report techniques

A
  • re writing ambiguous questions
  • deselecting certain questions
  • more structured interview
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30
Q

External validity

A

The extent to which an observed effect can be generalised, people other times and setting

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31
Q

Temporal validity

A

A form of external validity focusing on the ability to generalise findings beyond the particular historical context of the study

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32
Q

Ecological validity

A

A form of external validity focusing on the extent to which the research effect is likely to be demonstrated in other settings

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33
Q

Population validity

A

A form of external validity which refers to whether you can reasonably generalised the findings from your sample to a larger part of the population

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34
Q

Internal validity

A

The extent to which the effects of a study are due to the manipulation of the independent variable

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35
Q

Factors effecting internal validity

A

Extraneous and confounding variables
Demand characteristics
Leading questions
Poor operationalisation

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36
Q

How to improve internal validity

A

Control group - asses wethere effects of IV has caused changes in the DV
Standardisation - reduce investigator effects
Lie scale - assessing consistency of responses, reduces social-desirability bias

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37
Q

Factors affecting external validity

A

Artificial task/setting
Mundane realism
Type of sample
Changes in societal norms

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38
Q

How to improve external validity

A

Set up experiments in more naturalistic settings
Carry out at different times to increase temporal validity
Use of a large sample with a range of ages
Mundane realism - do tasks that reflect real life

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39
Q

Aim

A

A purpose for carrying out a study

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40
Q

Hypothesis

A

A statement that is made at the start of a study and clearly states the relationship between the variables
- directional and non-directional -

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41
Q

Operationalisation

A

Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured

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42
Q

Control group

A

The group in the experiment that receives no treatment

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43
Q

Independent variable

A

Some aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher or changes naturally

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44
Q

Dependant variable

A

The variable that is measured by the researcher, any effect on this should change the IV

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45
Q

Experimental group

A

The group in the experiment that received the experimental treatment

46
Q

Strength of lab experiments

A

Easy to replicate
High internal validity -> more control over extraneous variables

47
Q

limitations of lab experiments

A

Demand characteristics
Lacks generalisations, low external validity

48
Q

Strengths of field experiments

A

High external validity
Higher mundane realism, more natural environments

49
Q

limitations of field experiments

A

Less control over extraneous variables
Ethical issues
Replication

50
Q

Field experiment

A

IV is manipulated in a natural, more everyday setting
Effect on DV is recorded

51
Q

Natural experiment

A

Takes advantage of a pre-existing IV - its natural, not necessarily in the setting
Records effect on DV

52
Q

Strength of natural experiment

A

High external validity

53
Q

limitations of natural experiments

A

Harder to replicate
Practical and ethical reasons

54
Q

Quasi experiments

A

Has an IV that is based on an existing difference between people
The variables simply exist and have not been manipulated

55
Q

Strengths of quasi

A

Removes extraneous variables
Replications
Randomisation

56
Q

Limitation of quasi

A

Low internal validity
Confounding variables

57
Q

Extraneous variables

A

Any variable other than the IV that may have an effect on the DV if it is not controlled

58
Q

Confounding variables

A

Sony variable other than the IV that may have affected the DV

59
Q

Demand characteristics

A

Is an extraneous variable
Participants will try to work out what is going on using certain clues/cues

60
Q

Investigator effects

A

Results in an unwanted influence of the investigator on the research outcome

61
Q

Single blind design

A

Participant is not aware of the research aims and/or which condition of the experiment they’re receiving

62
Q

Double blind design

A

Participant and the investigator are blind to the aim/hypothesis

63
Q

Experimental realism

A

If the researcher makes the task sufficiently engaging, the participant pays attention to the task and not the fact they’re being observed

64
Q

Repeated measures

A

Participants take part in all conditions of the experiment

65
Q

Independent groups

A

Participants take part in all conditions of the experiment

66
Q

Independent groups

A

Participants take part in one condition of the experiment

67
Q

Matched pairs

A

Participants are put into pairs based on a potential extraneous variables, one takes part in condition A the other in condition B

68
Q

Random

A

All members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected. List of all member of the target population obtained, where all names assigned a number

69
Q

Systematic

A

Every nth member of the target population is selected. A sampling frame is produced

70
Q

Stratified

A

The composition of the sample reflects the proportion of people in the certain sub groups

71
Q

Strengths of random sampling

A
  • possibility of achieving representative sample
  • each member has the same probability of being selected
72
Q

Limitations of random sampling

A
  • impractical, not always possible to use
  • small minority groups within target groups distort results
73
Q

Strengths of stratified sampling

A
  • no researcher/volunteer bias
74
Q

Weaknesses of stratified sampling

A
  • participants can refuse to take park
  • time consuming and expensive as you need an entire list of target population, as well as data and graphs
75
Q

Strengths of Opportunity sampling

A
  • doesnt require money
  • convenient
  • doesnt take up much time
76
Q

Weaknesses of opportunity sampling

A
  • not necessarily representative of target population
  • cant be generalised to sub groups
77
Q

Strengths of systematic sampling

A
  • Random
  • less researcher bias
78
Q

Weakness of systematic sampling

A
  • time consuming
  • pts may refuse to participate
79
Q

Strengths of volunteer sampling

A
  • easy to get participants
  • less time consuming
  • pts will be more engaged
80
Q

Weaknesses of volunteer sampling

A
  • attracts a certain profile or personality
  • cant be generalised
81
Q

Naturalistic observation

A

Takes place in a setting where target behaviour would usually occur
Aspects of environment free to vary

82
Q

Controlled observation

A

Sometimes useful to control aspects of research situation

Some control over variables - manipulating variables to observe effects and controls for some extraneous variables

83
Q

Covert

A
  • participants are unaware that they are the focus of a study, no consent
  • observed in secret
  • behaviour must be public and happening anyway
84
Q

Overt

A
  • participants are aware their behaviour is being observed and have given informed consent
85
Q

Participant

A

Sometimes necessary for observer to become part of group studying

86
Q

Strengths of structured

A

Easier data collections
Quantitative data

87
Q

Strengths of unstructured

A

Qualitative data
Depth of detail

88
Q

Unstructured weaknesses

A

Hard to analyse
Observer bias

89
Q

Behavioural categories

A

When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable

90
Q

Time sampling

A

Recording behaviour within a pre-established time frame

91
Q

Event sampling

A

Counting number of times a particular behaviour occurs in target or individual group

92
Q

Event sampling

A

Counting number of times a particular behaviour occurs in target individual or group

93
Q

Self report

A

Any method in which a person is asked to state their own feelings behaviours and experiences related to a certain topic

94
Q

Two types of questionnaires

A

Open and closed

95
Q

Strengths of questionnaires

A
  • cost-effective
  • statistical analysis
96
Q

Weaknesses

A
  • effort to obtain data
  • may not be truthful, social desirability bias
97
Q

MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDANCY AND DISPERTATION

A
98
Q

MATHS CONTENT

A
99
Q

THE SIGN TEST

A
100
Q

One-tailed

A

Directional hypothesis

101
Q

Level of significance

A

Always 0.05

102
Q

Calculating probability

A
103
Q

type I error

A

accept the alternative hypothesis in error, data has passed level of significance but findings were actually just due to chance

104
Q

type II error

A

reject alternative when its actually true, data hasn’t passed level of significance, but pts not acting as expected due to chance variation hidden the causal relationship between IV and DV

105
Q

null

A

no causal relationship between IV and DV

106
Q

nominal

A

categorical, variables don’t overlap, no natural ordero

107
Q

ordinal

A

have natural order, likert, ranking

108
Q

interval data

A

equal units, ratio, continous

109
Q

converting

A

interval can to go ordinal by giving each pt a ranking
interval can go to nominal by creating seperate categories

110
Q

correllation coefficients

A

represents both strength anf direction to the relationship between the co-variables as a number betweeen -1 and +1

Paper 2 Psychology (12 decks)

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