research methods Flashcards
1
Q
what are the research steps?
A
Aim, Hypothesis, Procedure, Research, Conclusion
2
Q
What is a null hypothesis?
A
H0
‘no significant difference’
3
Q
What is an alternative hypothesis?
A
H1
Directional (1 tailed) - ‘significantly bigger/ smaller’
Non-directional (2 tailed) -‘a significant difference’
4
Q
Advantages of random sampling?
A
Everyone gets an equal chance
Unbiased
5
Q
Disadvantages of random sampling?
A
Not representative
May not participate once chosen
6
Q
Advantages of opportunity sampling?
A
Quick
Cheap
Fast
7
Q
Disadvantages of opportunity sampling?
A
unrepresentative
8
Q
Advantages of self selected sampling?
A
Easy
Ethical
Full co operation
9
Q
Disadvantage of self selected sampling?
A
Unrepresentative
Long time to volunteer
10
Q
Advantage of snowball sampling?
A
Quick
Sensitive topics
11
Q
Disadvantage of snowball sampling?
A
Unrepresentative (same type of people)
12
Q
Advantage of stratified sampling?
A
best represents entire population
13
Q
Disadvantage of stratified sampling?
A
Expensive
Time consuming
14
Q
Advantage of primary data?
A
Fits specific needs
Up to date
Control over data
15
Q
Disadvantage of primary data?
A
Expensive
Time consuming
Not always possible
16
Q
Advantage of secondary data?
A
Free
Ease of access
Time saving
New insights
17
Q
Disadvantage of secondary data?
A
Not specific to your needs
Lack of control
Biasness
18
Q
Advantage of quantitative data?
A
Large scale/samples
Reliable
Patterns and trends
Objective
19
Q
Disadvantage of quantitative data?
A
No reasoning
20
Q
Advantage of qualitative?
A
More valid
Richer/in depth
Reasoning
21
Q
Disadvantage of qualitative data?
A
Small scale
Unreliable
Subjective
22
Q
What’s internal reliability and what test measures it?
A
How consistently a method measures within itself
Split-half method
23
Q
What is external reliability and what test measures it?
A
How consistently a method measures over time when repeated
Test-re-test method
24
Q
What is inter-rater reliability?
A
A degree of consensus amongst raters
25
What is Internal validity?
The test or measure being used
26
what is face validity?
at face value does it appear to measure what is meant to

27
what is criterion validity?
how well findings predict what happens beyond research
28
what is concurrent validity? 
comparing a new method with an already established one
29
what is construct validity?
Is it measuring what it is supposed to?
30
What is external validity?
Refers to issues beyond the investigation
31
what is ecological validity?
If the method measures behaviour that is representative of naturally occurring behaviour
32
what is population validity?
If it can be generalised to the whole population
33
What are the seven ethical issues?
informed consent
right to withdraw
confidentiality
competence
protection from harm
debrief
deception 
34
What are the levels of measurements?
interval
ordinal
nominal 
35
what is interval?
Fixed unit with equal distance between points on the safe numerical scale that (can go below zero)
36
what is ordinal?
Ordered data, no true mathematical value
37
what is nominal?
named categories, no true mathematical value, basic form of data 
38
What are the measures of central tendency?
mean median mode 
39
What are the measures of dispersion and what do they describe?
they describe the spread of data from the mean
normal distribution, positively skewed distribution, negatively skewed distribution 
40
what does normal distribution look like
Bell shape with symmetry at the new value
41
What does positively skewed distribution look like?
P shape (mode median mean) measures central tendency increased in value
42
what does a negatively skewed
distribution look like
measures of central tendency will increase in value, mean median mode
43
What are the measures of dispersion?
Sample variance
Sample standard deviation
Range
44
Advantages of the variance?
Takes into account every score
Not distorted by extreme scores
Allows us to compare groups of data
45
Disadvantages of variance
Calculation isn’t as easy as the range
Not as accurate as standard deviation
46
Advantages of sample standard deviation
Interprets how useful a score is
uses all numbers
47
Disadvantage of sample standard deviation?
very sensitive
48
How to calculate sample variance and standard deviation?
In column 1 find the mean of the scores
In column 2 take away the mean from each score
In column 3 square each result
Add all the square numbers together
Sum of square numbers/N-1
If standard deviation square root
Ignore any negative signs
49
What are extraneous and confounding variables?
E-unintentional effect on results, can attempt to be controlled
C-unintentional effect on results, cant be controlled
50
Types of experiments?
Lab
Field
Quasi
51
Advantages of lab experiments?
Reliable
52
Disadvantages of lab experiments?
low in ecological validity
demand characteristics
53
Advantage of field experiments?
High in ecological validity
54
Advantage of Quasi experiments?
High population validity
55
Disadvantage of quasi experiments?
Hard to establish cause and effect
56
What are the experimental designs?
Independent measures-different participants take part in each condition
Repeated measures-same participants take part in each both conditions
Matched pairs- different participants with same characteristic
57
Advantages of independent measures
no order effects, cheaper, one set of materials
58
Disadvantages of independent measures
difference between participants
twice as many participants

59
Advantage of repeated measures
fewer participants
quicker
cheaper
60
disadvantage of repeated measures
potential order effects
practice/ fatigue effect
61
advantages of matched pairs
no difference between participants no order effects, cheaper, one set of materials
62
Disadvantage of matched pairs
Time consuming, not always perfectly matched
63
type of correlations
Positive
negative
no correlation
64
what are the correlation coefficients?
-1 to +1
-1 perfect negative
+1 perfect positive
0 no correlation
65
Strength of correlations
Good pilot study to generate a hypothesis
Research variables that would be unethical to manipulate
Understand relationship between 2 variables
66
Weakness of correlations?
Doesn’t show causation
can be misleading
tells of nothing about the other variables
67
what are the stages of observations?
selection
recording
analysis
interpretation
68
What are the types of observations?
naturalistic
controlled
non participant
participant
covert
overt
69
advantage of naturalistic observations
Ecological validity, reduced chance of demand characteristics
70
Disadvantage of naturalistic observations
Not reliable, lack of control and informed consent
71
Advantage of controlled observation
reliability
lackof extreneous variables
lots of quantitive and qualitative data
72
disadvantage of non-participant observations
not a great understanding as not participating
demand characteristics (if aware)
73
advantage of participant observations
can understand firsthand
high validity of findings
74
disadvantage of participant observation
Demand characteristics
consent issues (if covert)
relies on observers memory

75
Advantages of covert observation
no demand characteristics
76
disadvantages of covert observation
No consent
77
advantages of overt observation
high ecological validity
informed consent
right to withdraw
78
disadvantages of overt observation
demand characteristics
79
What are advantages of structured observations?
high in reliability
easier to observe due to the nature
80
disadvantages of structured observations
Low ecological validity
demand characteristics
81
advantages of unstructured observations
Natural behaviour, so ecological validity
82
disadvantages of unstructured observations
might miss behaviours
might misinterpret behaviours
can go off task
83
How to deal with observer bias
use inter-rater reliability
can be improved by:
pilot study -ensure categories operationalised
train observers
84
Advantages of time sampling
observation takes place over the greater time period
provides qualitative data
reliable
85
disadvantages of time sampling
behaviours may be missed
little insight into frequency of behaviours
86
advantages of event sampling
behaviours won’t be missed
quantitive data
87
disadvantages of event sampling
Time consuming- needs prepared chart
behaviours may be missed if too many events occur at the same time
88
What are types of self report techniques?
questionnaires, structured interviews, unstructured interviews, semi structured interviews
89
strength of questionnaires
reliable, quick, cheap confidential so honest
90
weakness of questionnaires
Low response rate, best fit answers,
no qualitative insights
91
strengths of structured interviews
Quantitative, reliable, easy to use
92
disadvantage of structured questionnaires
Limited to fixed questions, interviewer bias, social desirability
93
advantages of unstructured interview
in-depth information, ethical so uncomfortable questions can be avoided
94
disadvantage of unstructured interviews
can go off topic, interviewer bias, not reliable
95
advantage of semi structured interviews
extra questions to confirm information, valid, qualitative data
96
weakness of semi structured interviews
interviewer bias, time-consuming, hard to interpret
97
how to write a good question
clarity, make sure the question is clear
bias, no leading questions
analysis
98
advantage of open questions
qualitative data, ecological validity
99
disadvantage of open questions
Unreliable
people can lie
time-consuming
difficult to analyse due to subjectiveness

100
Advantage of closed questions
fast, easy, quantitative data, reliability
101
disadvantage of closed questions
may not contain participants preferred responses.
Participants may not understand I might want to elaborate
102
what is a rating scale?
A simple numerical scale
103
what are advantages of a rating scale?
quantitative data
easy to respond reliable and generalisable
positive plus negative scales can be used(scores reversed, stopping response bias)
104
What are disadvantages of rating scales
only quantitative data
can’t measure complex variables (attitudes)
response bias
points only relative may be confused on what to put
105
what are Likert scales?
measures attitude and how
circle answer they identify with
5 to 7 points
106
Strength of likert scales
quantitative data
measures complex attitudes
efficient- can post/email
easy to respond
107
weakness of likert scale
only quantitative data
response bias
social desirability
108
what are semantic differential scales?
Distinguishes between two extremes, (polar opposites)
109
What are strengths of semantic differential scales?
easy to understand the question, quantitative data, several options, quick
110
What are weaknesses of semantic differential scales?
not easy to know where to tick
social desirability
subjective to respondents current feelings
111
what is a paper and a journal?
Paper, a core study
Journal, A combination of papers 
112
why is report writing important?
showcases findings,
allows students/psychologist to replicate study
113
what are the seven sections of report writing?
Abstract
introduction
method
results
discussion
references
appendices
114
What is in the abstract?
150–200 words
Summary of research
Includes aim method hypothesis, IVDV sample, sampling technique, results and conclusions
115
what is in the introduction?
600–700 words
Outlines why the research is being done
Justification
Places study in context to relevant theories and research
116
what is in the method?
Sample and sampling method
Procedure
apparatus and material
Relevant justifications
117
what is in the results?
Descriptive and inferential statistics
Results in light of context
Draw conclusions about meanings of results
118
what is in the discussion?
Explanation of results
Links back to introduction and previous research
Failings and suggestions for further study
Hypothesis accepted and rejected
119
What is in the references?
List of all journal, articles, books, sources
protects against plagiarism
120
What is in the appendices?
additional information
Raw data
provides context/background
121
How do you use Harvard referencing in journals?
surname initials year of publication title of article title of journal, volume of journal page numbers relevance
122
how do you use Harvard referencing in books
surname initial year of publication title of book name of publisher town the publisher is located in
123
What is the importance of peer review?
ensures research is high-quality and correct
checks ethical issues
124
how are peer reviews carried out?
research paper is submitted to a journal for consideration for publication
Editor examines topic and send to expert in that field
critical appraisal of work returned with a recommendations
125
Problems with peer review
production bias
file drawer phenomenon- favour, positive results
objectivity
preserving status quo- fit into norm
126
Disadvantage of field experiment
more extraneous variables
127
what are the types of time sampling?
-predominant activity
-instantaneous scan= if the behaviour was present at the time of recording e.g. 10 seconds, 20 seconds
-one-zero= if it occurred in time period
128
how to draw a pie chart
360 divided by total frequency
times by each number
129
what are types of fraudulent research?
-plagiarism
-falsification
-fabrication
130
advantages of nominal data?
-easy to generate from closed questions so large amounts of data
-easy to find mode
131
advantages of nominal data?
-easy to generate from closed questions so large amounts of data
-easy to find mode
132
disadvantage of nominal data?
-can only use mode
-cant express degrees of response
133
advantages of ordinal data?
-more info than nominal as shows where value is on scale
-can use median and mode
-east to get from rating and likert scales
134
disadvantages of ordinal data?
-cant get mean
-p may interpret scale differently so comparisons may be invalid
135
advantages of interval?
-most info
-easy to get from closed questions
-mean and measures of spread
-scientific measurements highly reliable (absolute zero)
136
disadvantages of interval?
in non scientific measures there is no baseline so zero may mean they don’t have the answer preference
137
what is an advantage of using the standard deviation instead of the variance
It’s the square root of the variance
The figure is much more typical of the actual difference
The variance is much bigger and is squared
