Research Methods Flashcards

Question

What is a negative skew on a curve (in terms of mean, median and mode)

Answer 1

When there are more scores at the higher end of the data set. The tail is on the left side of the peak. The mode is more than the median which is more than the mean.

Answer 2

When there are more scores at the lower end of the data set. The tail is on the right side of the peak. The mode is less than the median, which is less than the mean.

Answer 3

• A spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, where the data clusters to one end

Answer 4

Is the variable directly manipulated by the researcher (what you are changing).

Answer 5

Is the variable you think will be affected by changes in the IV.

Answer 6

Describing the process by which the variable is measured. This allows other researchers to see exactly how you are defining and measuring your variables.

Answer 7

Number of chocolate eaten, time taken, number of people

Answer 8

An attempt to control for participants variables in an independent groups design which ensures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as any other

Answer 9

Half of the participants participate in condition A before condition B. The other half participate in condition B before condition A This means that the first and second condition is not the same for every participant.

Answer 10

Participants are assigned to condition A or B first by tossing a coin or picking out a name

Answer 11

Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study

Answer 12

Anything that impacts the dependent variables that is not the independent variables

Answer 13

Random sampling creates more equality between groups

Answer 14

Any variables that influence your DV, other than the IV, that we cannot be sure of the true source of changes to the DV.

Answer 15

The study measures or examines what it claimed to measure or examine.

Answer 16

The extent the results of the study can be generalised to other settings, situations, people

Answer 17

Generalisable to real life settings generalising findings from one setting to other settings.

Answer 18

Results from a new test can be compared to a previously well-established test.

Answer 19

Whether you can reasonably generalise the findings from your sample to a larger group of people

Answer 20

Assesses to what degreee research findings remain over time

Answer 21

The extent to which a test appears to measure what it is intended to measure

Answer 22

If diagnosis leads to successful treatment then the diagnosis is seen as valid

Answer 23

Involves asking experts in the field to check the content of the study

Answer 24

Reliability is the overall consistency of measure

Answer 25

Internal reliability-Is the extent to which a test is consistent within itself

Answer 26

External reliability- refers to the ability of the test to produce the same results each time it is carried out

Answer 27

Ethical guidelines were developed for psychologists to follow when they are designing studies, so that participants are protected.

Answer 28

Informed Consent: participants should always give informed consent (under 16 by parents or guardian). They should be told the aims and nature of the study and the right to withdraw. Deception: if participants have been deceived then they cannot give informed consent. Sometimes researchers must withhold information about the study because the participants would not behave naturally if they knew what the aims were. Right to Withdraw: participants are allowed to withdraw from the research at any point. Confidentiality: none of the participants in the study should be identifiable from any reports that are produced. Data must be confidential and anonymous. Protection from harm: risk of harm to participants should be no greater than they would face in their normal lives.

Answer 29

It is used as method of dealing with all other issues. This should return participants to the state they were in before the research. Researchers must fully explain what the research involved and what the results might show.

Answer 30

There are two seperate groups of participants, one group takes place part in condition A, the other takes part in conditions B

Answer 31

No order effects- only takes part in one condition, so don’t get bored or practiced Fewer demand characteristics- participants may only know their condition they participated in

Answer 32

• Participant variables- there will be a large number of participants therefore will be a high range of individual differences which an effect results , rather than the independent variable • Number of participants- requires a large number of participant to be able to participate in the study

Answer 33

There is only one group of participants. This group takes part in both conditions

Answer 34

No individual differences as the same person does both conditions (Participant variables will not affect results) • Number of participants

Answer 35

• Order effects (participants performance influenced due to the order of the experimental conditions. However, this can be helped by counter-balancing) • Demand characteristic

Answer 36

Using a matched pair design where there are two conditions but the participant are matched. For example age and IQ.

Answer 37

No order effects Controls for individuals differences. Can be more sure the IV caused differences in DV rather than big differences between 2 groups • Participant variables- this ensures their personal characteristics are similar do not affect the results)

Answer 38

• Number of participants • Practicalities – time consuming and difficult to find people who match

Answer 39

These take place outside of the lab, in a natural environment but the basic scientific procedure are still followed as far as possible The independent variable is manipulated Th effect on Dependent variable is measured

Answer 40

Bickman and Bushman

Answer 41

• Shows casual relationships (how a change in one variable causes the change for another variable) • High ecological validity- experiment conducted in a natural real life setting

Answer 42

• Less control on extraneous variables.Therefore, we may not be able to establish cause and effect • Ethics- as the experiment is done in a natural setting often people don’t even know they are involved in the experiment. As a result they don’t give informed consent,

Answer 43

An experiment that controls all relevant variables except one key variable, which is altered to see what the effect is.

Answer 44

It is controlled- As a result we can limit the effects of extraneous variables and establish cause and effect Can be easily replicated High in reliability

Answer 45

Artificial environment ( low mundane realism) Participant may behave differently to normal or be effected by the environment (demand characteristics) It therefore may lack generalisability (low external validity)

Answer 46

Someone who is involved in the research that tries to influence the participants

Answer 47

The participants are the experiment who the researcher is testing. For example, they may receive a drug

Answer 48

The other condition where participants are taking part in the experiment, but no manipulation is used. For example, they may receive a saline solution instead of the drug that the experimental group received.

Answer 49

Participants may have determined the aims of the study; they might act deliberately to please the researcher (or the opposite)

Answer 50

Counterbalancing/ randomisation

Answer 51

Neither the participants or the researchers know which condition the participants are in.

Answer 52

This is used in medical trials / drug trials

Answer 53

The participants do not know what condition they are in. This attempts to control for the confounding effects (when the extraneous variables affect both the IV and DV) of demand characteristics

Answer 54

This is used for the experiment and control groups.

Answer 55

where the researcher look at how the IV, which is not manipulated by the researcher, effects the DV. The IV is an event that occurs naturally., for example, single-sex schools and mixed schools.

Answer 56

High in ecological validity (represents real life experiences) provides opportunities for research which otherwise may not be available Enables Psychologists to study ‘real’ problems Objective research method-little inference from reseacher Few ethical issues No demand characteristics

Answer 57

A naturally occurring event may happen very rarely which limits the opportunity to investigate this also limits generalisability. Many extraneous variables which are a threat to 'cause - effect' conclusion. we cannot establish a casual relationship due to the many extraneous variables Participants are not randomly allocated to conditions which may mean that there is some bias in the sample. Problems with the ethics of the experiment - lack of informed consent, participants don’t even know they are in an experiment

Answer 58

In quasi experiments the IV is a naturally existing characteristic between people and has not been changed by anyone or anything (e.g biological sex, eye colour, ethnicity, IQ etc)

Answer 59

• Control- lack of control variables although it can rely on already existing interventions (this makes the experiment not artificial) • Ecological validity- occurs in real life settings e.g hospitals, schools or workplaces

Answer 60

• Participant allocation in quasi-experiments can introduce hidden differences between groups. - we can’t identify causal relationship due to the number of extraneous variables and the limited amount of preventative measures to limit these. This affects one variable affecting another

Answer 61

Categories defined by the researcher to observe during the experiment.

Answer 62

Aggression in children, laughter in children , how many times a conversation is initiated, the duration of time spent on a phone

Answer 63

Researcher records every event (if a behaviour category) when observed in the research in a target or individual

Answer 64

Researcher records every behaviour within a certain time frame, for example, 10 minutes looking at a phone

Answer 65

Takes place in a laboratory so the researcher can control the conditions.

Answer 66

Control over extraneous variables- therefore we are able to establish cause and effect Inter-observer reliability (refers to the ability of where multiple observers agree on their assessment on a certain behaviour) . This makes the experiment reliable Easy to replicate- due to highly controlled procedure

Answer 67

May be subjective towards what the researcher wants to see Low ecological validity Extraneous variables can be controlled. This creates an artificial setting which cannot be generalised to real life

Answer 68

Take place in a natural environment. They can be structured in advance to make sure no behaviour is missed.

Answer 69

• High ecological validity- as the observation is conducted in a natural situation that can be applied to real life scenarios (high external validity- the findings of a study can be more easily generalized to the outside world). • Theory development (allows researchers to observe behaviors as they naturally occur in real-world settings) Few demand characteristics

Answer 70

Replication difficult- due to the lack of control over extraneous variables Uncontrolled extraneous variables- we may not be able to identify cause and effect due to unknown variables Problem with ethics in the experiment- lack of informed consent from the participants Observer bias- The subjective nature of the observers may affect the experiment

Answer 71

The participants are unaware that they are being observed

Answer 72

The participants are more likely to behave naturally. (No demand characteristics)

Answer 73

Ethical issues as they do not know they are being observed

Answer 74

More ethically sound than other methods because the participants are aware of the research.

Answer 75

Researcher’s presence is obvious to participants

Answer 76

There maybe demand characteristics as they know they are being observed

Answer 77

when the researcher participates in the study

Answer 78

Insight- being part of the group lets you understand how it is as a participant as you experience minor details which affects the behaviour of participants.Therefore, you understand how people do what they do Increase in validity- as data is collected in a natural setting and is interacted naturally the results obtained are genuine and can be applied to real life (high external validity- generalise the findings of a study to other situations, people, settings, and measures)

Answer 79

The researcher loses objectivity by becoming part of the group- you will judge peoples behaviour through new perspective, rather than as a neutral outsider The participants might act differently if they know there is a researcher amongst them- as a result you will be observing an act and not their natural behaviour Difficulty in recording observation- you may miss important details which will result in the incomplete or biased results Ethical issues- you may need to decieve the participant by hiding your researcher role. Additionally, is difficult to gain proper consent before the experiment- this breaches the British Psychological Society Code of Ethics

Answer 80

The experimenter does not become part of the group being observed

Answer 81

More ethical- as the observer is separated from the group the participant are not being deceived and the researchers can say they are observing them (follows part of the British Psychological Society Code of Ethics ) More objective- the observers are less influenced by participants. Their role as an observer helps them to observe actual findings and what they believe should have happened. A

Answer 82

Less insight- since you don’t experience it form a first hand account as you can only observe what happen ( you wont know why they did it). Therefore , you may overlook important details in your observations of what the participants experience. Lower in validity- Since you are observing from the sidelines without a participants perspective your findings may not accurately reflect the true nature of the behaviour

Answer 83

Structured: The researcher determines precisely what behaviours are to be observed and uses a standardised checklist to record the frequency with which they are observed within a specific time frame

Answer 84

• Controlled- you decide ahead of time what to observe and create a checklist of different behaviours. This ensures everyone is treated the same and there are no anomalous behaviours. • Can be repeated- as a checklist is created observers can follow the procedure in order to identify the same types of behaviours. However, the same conditions of the experiment must be followed.

Answer 85

• Might miss relevant information if too controlled- as the observers are following strict procedures in order to identify certain behaviour. They may miss other important factors within the experiment

Answer 86

The observer recalls all relevant behaviour but has no system

Answer 87

Interesting behaviour recorded because they were pre-defined as important. (All behaviour is recorded.)

Answer 88

It is harder to gather the relevant data because there is a lot of things to look for (all behaviour is recorded) Not controlled- as all data is recorded the observers will pick up different things or get distracted. Not repeatable- guidelines followed may be different. Additionally, observers decision on certain behaviors may be subjective. This makes it hard for researchers to copy exact steps to compare notes.

Answer 89

The test should give consistent results regardless of who administers it. This can be assessed by correlating the scores that each researcher produces and comparing them. They should be consistent by at least 80%.

Answer 90

It can be improved by: training data collectors Providing them with a guide for recording their observations Monitoring the quality of the data collection over time Offer a chance to discuss difficult issues or problems

Answer 91

Used to gather qualitative research- can be face-to-face or over the phone Could be structured , unstructured or semi-structured

Answer 92

Rich data- participants will give their own thoughts, feelings and experiences in their own words. This gives you details which you wouldn’t find in a checkbox or pre-determine questions. Additionally, follow-up questions can be used in order to draw even more information out (deep insight into feelings and thoughts), or tailored to give specific responses Good rapport (mutual understanding of the experiment) will result in high validity Pilot study- small pilot interviews can be conducted before the main study to see if the questions make sense. Based on feedback, the questions can be tweaked in order for clearer and better answers.

Answer 93

Impractical- you need to schedule each interview, build rapport (mutual understanding and trust between two parties) and possible ask follow up questions. Requires a trained interviewer, an area to conduct the interviews and lastly equipment to record the data. We are limited to a small sample since research’s may not have time or money to interview thousands. Unethical- If participants share sensitive information, this information must be kept confidential under the British Psychological Society Code of Ethics Certain topics may distress people. As a result we must protect them from harm and offer them a debrief after. The interviewees must give their informed consent in order to be interviewed and must be willing to participate.

Answer 94

The interview starts with some general aims and questions and then lets the interviewee’s answer guide subsequent questions.

Answer 95

Detailed and in-depth information obtained through interviews (rich data- as the participants are saying their personal experience). You can access information that may not be revealed from pre- determined questions through asking follow up questions or any question. • Deep insights into feelings and thoughts through the use of follow-up questions tailored based on responses. This can urge participants to push more information out. -good rapport (high in validity)- the researcher and the participant both have a mutual understanding of the experiment.

Answer 96

More affected by interviewer bias then structured interviews- the interview has the ability to control the question in a certain type of answer Requires well-trained interviewers - without a fixed script interviews must not talk about sensitive topics, continue the conversation and be able to draw important information out of people Low reliability – interviewer may behave differently or ask different questions on different days/times. This makes it difficult to compare responses across interviews. Hard to analyse answers- Each asnwer is unique. As a result, it takes a lot of time to find key themes/categories. Body language- Both interview and interviewee rely on body language to guide the flow of the conversation. These unstandardised signals can be misread leading to it to affect answers.

Answer 97

When the questions are decided in advance

Answer 98

• Can be easily repeated – standardised questions • Requires less skill then unstructured interviews as question are read in a certain order. Therefore, there is a fewer chance of mistakes • Easier to analyse then unstructured interviews- as the question are the same the answers are comparable. This makes it easy to find trends.

Answer 99

Interviewer bias may still occur-the body language of a interviewer can influence the interviewee to give an answer to the interviewers favour Social desirability may still occur-interviewees may give answers to what they believe is right or socially acceptable than their own opinions. Data collected will be restricted by a pre- determined set of questions- you are unable to ask follow-up questions and miss out on useful insights.

Answer 100

These can be anything that the researcher does which can affect how the participant behaves. If a researcher’s expectations influence how they behave towards their participants, the participants might respond to demand characteristics.

Answer 101

The researchers’ expectations can influence how they design their study and how they behave towards the participants. Their expectations may influence how they take measurements and analyse their data, resulting in errors that can lead, to accepting a hypothesis that is actually false.

Answer 102

A research assistant can conduct the research using standardised procedures to avoid bias/ effects. A double blind procedure; where the researcher and participant do not know the conditions they are in.

Answer 103

Research analysing secondary data and data you have already collected. Data is split into categories. A method of quantifying qualitative content via coding/ categorisation

Answer 104

A representative sample of qualitative data is collected, for example, from an interview, magazine Coding units are identified to analyse the data. A coding unit could be, for example, an act of violence. The qualitative data is then analysed to see how often each coding unit occurs.

Answer 105

Researchers should clarify/ establish/ agree operationalised codes/ categories Researchers could create new categories if necessary Researcher should be trained carefully in using these identified codes/ categories They should analyse a small number of diary extracts using the same analytic/ coding system Any improvement in reliability could be determined by establishing inter-rater/ inter observer-reliability between the two researchers; or test-retest reliabilityThe researchers’ results are compared for similarity to check improvements (+0.8). (It is used for secondary data)

Answer 106

• Inexpensive- uses exiting material e.g new passer, Tv shows and social media posts so they do not need to recruit participants or run experiment which costs money. • Ethics – participants are not directly involved as it often uses public or previously collected data there are less ethical issues (lack of informed consent / confidentiality) A clear summary of the patterns in the data may be establishedOnce a coding system has been set up, replication is easy.This in turn, improves reliability.

Answer 107

• Data analysis can be very time consuming - as you have to go through videos, texts and post then sort them into categories. This is demanding and very time consuming. • Subjectivity- even with a coding system deciding what counts as a certain theme or category is subjective. Different research may interpret the same content in a different way. This lowers reliability

Answer 108

Making summaries of data and identifying key themes and categories. • The researcher becomes familiar with the data. Then they start to look for different themes, review the themes, define and name the themes and then write a report.

Answer 109

• Qualitative data preserves the detail in the data- researchers work directly with people with their own experience. (rich data) • Creating hypotheses during the analysis allows for new insights to be developed- rather than filling data in pre-set boxes you can find trends and develop hypotheses. This approach helps to uncover insights. • Some objectivity can be established by using triangulation (comparing two results of two studies and seeing if they are similar)- researchers can check their theme against other sources (survey, observation or another researcher analysis) this is done to see if their research holds up and makes their data more reliable

Answer 110

• Deciding which categories to use and whether a statement fits a particular category- you have to define certain data into themes and researchers may disagree on themes, this makes coding inconsistent • Deciding what to leave out of the summary- when you pull out key themes some details are lost. The data left out may contain useful insights that never make it out into the final write-up Subjectivity- researchers may pick out different themes from dat and interpret it differently. Additionally, different analysts can come up with different themes from the same data

Answer 111

Adding all the scores in a data set and then dividing by the number of scores.

Answer 112

• Uses all scores in the data • It is a very sensitive statistic because it takes account of the exact distance between all the values of all the data

Answer 113

• If one of the values is extremely high or low (anomalous), then the overall mean can be very distorted and therefore misrepresent the data. • It cannot be used with nominal data

Answer 114

The mode is the value that is the most common data item. If two categories or data items have the same frequency the data has two modes, i.e. are bi-modal.

Answer 115

Shows the most common score • Unaffected by extreme values and is useful for discrete data and is the only method which can be used for nominal data.

Answer 116

• Sometimes there are so many modesthat the data cannot be described using this statistic. • Has little further use in data analysis

Answer 117

The middle score when the data is put in order

Answer 118

• It’s quick and easy to work out • It is not affected by extremely high or low scores

Answer 119

• Not all the scores are used to work out the median

Answer 120

Mean, median, mode

Answer 121

Highest score minus the lowest score

Answer 122

• It’s easy and quick to calculate

Answer 123

• It completely ignores the central values of data set, however it can be misleading if there are very high or low scores (Effected by extreme values)

Answer 124

Measures,on average, how much scores deviate from the mean

Answer 125

• All scores in the set are considered, so it’s more accurate than the range

Answer 126

• It may hide some of the characteristics of the data set (e.g. extreme values) It’s not quick or easy to calculate

Answer 127

Data involving words, videos or audio recordings.

Answer 128

Data involving numbers (numerical data)

Answer 129

Primary data is data collected first hand by the researcher for the purpose o the research project (e.g from a questionnaire) Secondary data is data collected from a source such as a book or newspaper (national statistics). Meta-analysis: this is where you analyse the results from loads of different studies and come up with some general conclusions.

Answer 130

It is small-scale preliminary study conducted before any large-scale quantitative research in order to evaluate the potential for a future, full-scale project. Pilot studies are a fundamental stage of the research process. Pilot studies allow researchers to check the methodology, standardise the instructions and allow the research to be conducted.

Answer 131

Questionnaires are a set of questions used to assess a person’s thoughts and experiences. It can be written, face-to-face, on the phone or online. It can include open or closed question and can b used on a large number of people or a selected sample.

Answer 132

open questions are questions that allow the participants to respond in any way and in as much detail as they like. This gives detailed, qualitative information. Closed questions limit the answers that can be given. They give quantitative data which is easier to analyse.

Answer 133

Cost effective- can create it online or on paper which is cheap to distribute. No demand characteristics- no researcher present. As a result the participant has no need to change their behaviour as they aren’t influenced. Researcher does not need to be present- practically easier . The particpants aren’t under pressure. The researcher can focus on more important things of the research. The experiment is simple to follow and requires no support. straightforward to analyse- statistical form

Answer 134

• Bad questions – leading questions or unclear questions can be a problem. This can create inaccurate data. • Biased samples- people tend to answer in a way which they think is socially acceptable (social desirability bias) - sample set may be from a particular area (limited sample) therefore may not be universally representative • Self-report- unlike interviews , questionnaire can’t push for more information. Additionally, Participants may present themselves differently if there is an incentive. (Fake Job application, exaggerating skills)

Answer 135

People usually try to show themselves in the best possible light. They might not be completely truthful but give answers that are more socially acceptable.

Answer 136

Not a true representation of someone’s opinions/ thoughts/ feelings.

Answer 137

case studies are carried out in the real world where psychologist collect intensive descriptions of a single individual or case. Case studies allow researchers to analyse unusual cases in a lot of detail. They are idiographic/ individualistic

Answer 138

Rich data- researchers have the opportunity to study rare phenomena in a lot of detail first hand. Unique cases- can challenge existing ideas and theories and make suggestions for future research. This helps to support certain hypotheses and develop scientific insights.

Answer 139

Casual relationships- cause and effect cannot be established. This is because of the lack of experimental control and manipulation of variables. Cannot be generalised- may use a small limited sample which is not representative in a broader context. Additionally, cultural , historical or situation factors that shape a case study may not apply elsewhere. Ethics - context with personal and sensitive material may risk privacy therefore it requires informed consent. We may need to debrief individuals after the case study (protection from harm)- reserachers must follow the British Psychological Society Code of Ethics

Answer 140

A representative group of people from a target population

Answer 141

All the people in a particular group- for example, a certain age or background

Answer 142

This is when every member of a target group has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. This could be done either manually or by a computer.

Answer 143

• Fair (unbiased) – everyone has a chance of being selected • Sample is likely to be representative

Answer 144

• Subgroups of target population might not be selected- does not guarantee a representative sample • The researcher may end up with a biased sample because the sample is too small.

Answer 145

Researcher advertise the study (through newspaper/notice board) and people who are interested apply to be in the research

Answer 146

Quick , convenient and ethical if it leads to informed consent Large response data- you can find a range of behaviour in the experiment and pick up on suble difference or relationships which may not appear in a small sample.(Allows more in-depth analysis and accurate results if there is a large sample)

Answer 147

• Not representative- only sample of people who have responded (e.g they might be highly motivated. This can cause volunteer bias)

Answer 148

Asking people who are available at the time and are willing to be studied to take part in the research.

Answer 149

Quick and practical- you use the first person who is available to you and is willing to be studied.

Answer 150

• Unlikely to be a representative sample- as participants are drawn from a small part of the target population. • Cannot generalise the findings- low external validity as the sample may not be the target population. Therefore, we cannot extend findings beyond the sample group. Additionally, trends observed may reflect of the experiment (time, place, social context) rather than universal trends.

Answer 151

Selecting people from every portion of your population in the same proportions

Answer 152

More representative than an opportunity sample because there should be equal representation of subgroups

Answer 153

• It is time-consuming because all potential participants need to be assessed and categorised. • Some groups within a sample may not be represented if a small sample is used. This may undermine any conclusion made as the small sample may not represent a broader context of their group.

Answer 154

This is where every nth name from a sampling frame (a record of all the names in a population) is taken

Answer 155

• Simple and effective way of generating a sample with a random element (avoid bias) • Population is more likely to be evenly sampled- fair groups are created with a diverse range of characteristic depending on the sample.

Answer 156

• Subgroups might be missed- this will undermine the accuracy and usefulness of the research since a group is absent. Any trends observed may be false and only apply to the groups captured. • Not necessarily representative if the pattern used for the sample coincides with a pattern in the population. Therefore, the data will be unrepresentative for every group except from the group recorded.

Answer 157

Presumptive consent: ask a similar group of people for consent. Prior general consent: consent for different studies, including one that may involve deception. Retrospective consent: ask for consent during debrief.

Answer 158

Data represented in the form of categories. For example, how many students in the 6th form drive to school, how many walk etc. Nominal data is discrete, one item can only appear in one category.

Answer 159

Data which is ordered in some way. Ask everyone in the class how much they like the 6th form on a scale of 1 – 10. Ordinal data does not have equal intervals between each unit. It would not make sense to say that someone who rated the 6th form as an 8 enjoys it twice as much as someone who rated it 4.

Answer 160

is based on numerical scales that include units of equal precisely defined size. Units of measurements e.g height, time and temperature

Answer 161

Used to compare an individual’s performance on two halves of a test.

Answer 162

• Efficiency: You only need one administration of the test (unlike test–retest, which needs two separate sessions) • Internal consistency check: It helps spot abnormal items that don’t fit the rest of the scale.

Answer 163

A person repeats a test a month or so after doing the test the first time. As time has passed, PPs shouldn’t remember their answers.

Answer 164

Temporal stability check - confirms that your measure isn’t just a one‑off snapshot but captures a lasting characteristic (e.g. introversion). Simplicity: You just need the same test twice.

Answer 165

Questionnaires: test-retest method- +.80 Low test-retest might require items to be deselected or rewritten.

Answer 166

Interviews: structured interviews are more reliable due to fixed nature

Answer 167

Observations: operationalising the behavioural categories Inter-observer reliability- (refers to the ability of where multiple observers agree on their assessment on a certain behaviour)

Answer 168

Questionnaires: test- re-test method should be used. Should produce a correlation that exceeds +.80

Answer 169

Interviews: not to ask leading or ambiguous questions. Use a structured interview

Answer 170

Experiments: precise replication of a particular method.

Answer 171

Observations: categories are properly operationalised. Measurable and self-evident. - Categories should not over-lap.

Answer 172

= < or > ≈ ∝ << , >>

Answer 173

If people are interested in something and in the attention they are getting, then they show a more positive response, and try harder at tasks. Additionally, the opposite can occur and participant may show a negative response and act uninterested. This will lead to invalid conclusions.

Answer 174

Strengths- Very convenient for the researcher to carry out Suitable for observing social behaviours Weaknesses- May not be representative of social behaviours

Answer 175

Positive: Researchers know exactly what behaviours they are looking for Negative: Potentially interesting behaviour could be ignored.

Answer 176

This is a bias produced by an observer making their own particular interpretation of the behaviour they observe (in observational studies)

Answer 177

Primary data pros: Authentic data obtained directly from the participant therefore targeted to get the information that is required Primary data cons: However, can require a lot of time and effort in conducting the experiment.

Answer 178

Secondary data pros: May be inexpensive and easily accessible requiring minimal effort Secondary data cons: There maybe variation in the quality and accuracy of results The content of the data may not quite match the researchers’ needs.

Answer 179

Question which offer a wide range of answers

Answer 180

Possible answers are determined by the researcher- the best are asked when factual information is needed as it will be more accurate. (E.g- how many pies did the man eat = 5)

Answer 181

Likert scale- is one in which the respondent indicates their agreement (or otherwis) with a statement using a scale of usually five points. The scale ranges from strongly agree to strongly disagree

Answer 182

Rating scales- respondents identify a value that represents the strength of their feeling about a topic.

Answer 183

Fixed choice options- includes a list of possible options and respondents are required to indicate those that apply to them.

Answer 184

Semi-structured interviews contain mostly prepared questions that can be supplemented with additional questions. The interviewer can deviate from the original questions and therefore this type of interview typically produces rich qualitative data.

Answer 185

The units of measurement (for example, CDs) cannot be split up. Can only be exact measures: shoe size, rolls of a dice.

Answer 186

Measured using a scale of measurement: height and distance. Distance has a meaning at all points between the numbers given, eg we can travel a distance of 1.2 and 1.85

Answer 187

In psychology, an acceptable probability level is usually p ≤ 0.05. This means there is a 5% or less chance that the results occurred due to random chance, even if there is no real effect in the population. If p ≤ 0.05, the results are considered statistically significant, and we can be reasonably confident that there is a real effect or difference.

Answer 188

Must be adequate data sampling to ensure that a representative sample of participants' behaviour is seen Language must be accurate and appropriate and have valid operationalised definitions Researcher bias must be avoided. (Research bias is when a researcher’s own beliefs, expectations, or behaviour influence the results of a study. This can reduce validity because the findings no longer reflect true behaviour.)

Answer 189

This involves all aspects of the psychological research being scrutinised by a small group of two or three experts in a particular field Peers should be objective and unknown to the research(s)

Answer 190

To allocate research funding To validate the quality and relevance of research To suggest amendments or improvements Governments run funding organisations- medical research council Quality and accuracy- the formualtions of the hypotheses, methodology chosen, statistical tests Minor revision and improvements- work is not appropriate and should be withdrawn

Answer 191

The peer should remain anonymous to maintain an honest appraisal A minority of reviewers use. Their anonymity to criticise rival researchers who have crossed them in the past: -Direct competition for grants/ funding -some journals make the names of the reviewers public

Answer 192

There is a tendency for editors to publish significant ‘headline grabbing’ findings to increase credibility and circulation of their publication -Could create a false impression of the current state of psychology if editors are selective in what they publish -File drawers problems- in meta analysis where non-significant or negative results are not published due to publication bias

Answer 193

Reviewers are especialy critical of research that contradicts their own and are favourable to those that match theirs Reviewers tends to be established scientists and are more likely to publish research that ‘fits’ with current opinions rather than new and innovative research that challenges.This could in turn, slow down the rate of the challenge

Answer 194

-attachment research: multiple attachments in particular the father -Both parents are equally capable of providing the necessary emotional support for development -can lead to flexible working arrangements within families

Answer 195

Absences at work cost the economy an estimated £15 billion per year A third caused by depression, anxiety and stress (The Telegraph,2014) CBT/ SSRis and anti anxiety drugs have allowed people with mild mental health disorders to return to work and access medical treatment

Answer 196

Czeisler et al. (1982) studied workers at a factory whose shift patterns appeared to cause sleep and health problems He recommended rotating shifts every 21 days and changing shifts forward in time Previously employees had the worked during the night for a week, late afternoons for the second week and mornings for the third week and returning to the night work. The changes indicated increased productivity and job satisfaction

Answer 197

The title should say what the study’s about and include the independent and dependent variable For example: ‘An investigation into the Effect of Happiness on Sport Activities

Answer 198

This is a consice summary of the report- no more than 200 words that tells the researcher about the study It should include a brief summary of the aims, hypotheses, method and results. Conclusion and limitations can also be included N.T.S: You should recall the whole article but sometimes the abstract will do (NTS=Note to self)

Answer 199

This is normally a literature reviews of the genral area of investigation It should begin broadly and then become more specific until the aims and hypotheses are presented If your research is very new, you may struggle to find existing researcg that fit into your introduction NTS: your report should always be written in third peson, using formal language,

Answer 200

As much detail is needed as possible for replication

Answer 201

The research method (field , interview etc), the design (e.g repeated), how extraneous variables were controlled (e.g random) how material were chosen (e.g word lists) and how ethical issues were dealt with

Answer 202

Anything used or where it came from, e.g the body image index (it should also be referenced)

Answer 203

This is information about you participants: number of participants, ages, assigned sex and gender identity , biographical and demographic information, how participants were allocated to conditions

Answer 204

A recipe style list of everything that happened. It should start with how researchers and investigations was introduced to the participants/ how informed consent was obtained -what instructions were given to the participants how were the participants debriefed afterwards -how was data collected and recorded

Answer 205

Predictions of an investigation’s outcome that make specific reference to the independent variables (IVs) manipulated and dependent variables (DVs) measured by the researchers.

Answer 206

Correlation: • What- Measures the relationship between two naturally occurring variables. • IV Manipulation- No • Control- Low (no control of extraneous factors) • Causation-Cannot infer -Strengths Ethics or practicality prevent manipulation (e.g. IQ & mental health) / highly controlled environment makes finding cause and effect easy • limitations: Directionality and third variable Experiment: • What-Researcher manipulates an IV and measures its effect on a DV. • IV Manipulation-Yes • Control-High (standardised procedures, randomisation) • Causation-Can infer cause → effect • Strengths-Internal validity, clear causality • Limitations- Ethical/practical constraints, possible low external validity (artificial setting)

Answer 207

• Descriptive statistics such as tables, graphs, charts and measures of central tendency and dispersion • Inferential statistics- choice of test, calculated and critical values and levels of significance. • Whether the hypotheses were accepted or rejected • Raw data to be presented in the appendix • If qualitative methods are used – results could be presented as analysis of themes in tables/ categories or direct quotations

Answer 208

• An explanation of the findings – summarising the results and relating them to the aim and hypothesis. Any unexpected findings should be presented • Implications of the study- answers if it relates to real-life? • Limitations and modifications- any thing that went wrong needs to be addressed and how you would correct them next time • The relationship to previous research- this should echo your introduction. Data should be compared to previous research • Suggestions for further research

Answer 209

• A reference section is needed include correct information about journals, books, articles and websites. • It should be presented in alphabetical order with the first author’s surname • E.G. for journal articles: - Gupta, S. (1991). Effects of time of day and personality on intelligence test scores. Personality and Individual Differences, 12 (11). 1227-1231 • Books - Wiseman, R. (2007). Quirkology: the curious science of everyday lives. London. Pan books

Answer 210

Appendices: • Should include: • Copies of the questionnaires used • Raw data • Statistical calculations • Ethical forms- consent/ debrief/ copy of instruction

Research Methods Flashcards

(237 cards)