research methods

Question 1

Null hypothesis

Answer 1

a general statement that “no things” affect each other or nothing is happening.
eg: what you watch before bed has no effect on how well you sleep.

Question 2

hypothesis

Answer 2

a clear and precise testable statement. relationship + dv + two levels of the iv.

Question 3

alternative hypothesis

Answer 3

a statement of the relationship or difference between variables.

Question 4

independant variable

Answer 4

the variable the experimenter is deliberately changing.
- there are usually two levels of the iv to enable comparisons.
example
eg does listening to music affect how students will learn?
- iv: whether or not music is playing while studying.

Question 5

dependent variable

Answer 5

what is measured by the researcher.
- the only thing that should affect the dv is the change in the iv.
eg does listening to music affect how students will learn?
the dv: how well students learn.

Question 6

different kinds of experimental methods:

Answer 6

laboratory, field, natural

Question 7

labratory experiment

Answer 7

an experiment carried out in highly controlled environments.
artificial setting
not where people would normally produce this behavior
e.g., laboratory experimenters manipulate the iv

Question 8

field experiment

Answer 8

a setting in which the behavior would normally occur.
natural setting
experimenter manipulates iv

Question 9

natural experiment

Answer 9

an experiment conducted in a natural or laboratory setting.
experimenter does not manipulate the iv

Question 10

different types of experimental designs

Answer 10

independent groups: where two or more separate groups of participants are used in an experiment; each group takes part in one of the conditions.

repeated measures: where only one group of participants is used in an experiment; this group takes part in both conditions.

matched pairs: where people with similar qualities are grouped into pairs; each member of the pair takes part in a different condition.

Question 11

strengths and weaknesses of repeated measures

Answer 11

repeated measures
- same people in both conditions; no participant variables.
- only 10 people needed to get 20 results (each person produces two scores).

weaknesses:
- order effects as people have to do two tasks.
- may need two tasks (e.g., cannot learn the same list twice).
- participants may work out the aim of the study.

Question 12

strengths and weaknesses of independent groups

Answer 12

independent groups
- no order effects; people only take part in one condition.
- often the same material is used in both conditions.
- participants cannot work out the aim of the study; they only take part in one condition.

weaknesses:
- different people (participant variables) in the two conditions; may be why results are different.
- more people needed for the study; 10 in each group means 20 people total.

Question 13

strengths and weaknesses of matched pairs

Answer 13

matched pairs
- participant variables are reduced.
- no order effects.
- often the same material is used in both conditions.

weaknesses:
- matching is difficult, time-consuming, and not always successful.
- some participant variables are still present.

Question 14

standardized procedures

Answer 14

a set order of carrying out a study that is applied to all participants when necessary.
- this makes the experiment unbiased.

Question 15

extraneous variables

Answer 15

a variable that is not the iv but might affect the dv if not controlled.
examples: time allowed for the test, difficulty of questions, environment noise.

Question 16

randomisation

Answer 16

using a chance to provide an order for a procedure
-making sure there is no researcher bias

Question 17

standardized procedure

Answer 17

a set order of carrying out a study that is applied to all participants when necessary
-this makes the experiment unbiased

Question 18

allocation of participants to conditions: random allocation

Answer 18

sorting participants into groups in a way that depends on pure chance (used in independent groups, matched pairs).

Question 19

allocation of participants to conditions: counterbalancing

Answer 19

an arrangement where half the participants in an experiment do condition a first, followed by condition b, while the other half do them in the opposite order.
- this spreads order effects equally between the conditions.

Question 20

strengths, weaknesses of labratory experiments

Answer 20

strengths:
- high control of evs, making it easier to establish cause and effect.
- can be standardized and replicated.

weaknesses:
- artificial setting; lacks ecological validity.
- participants may change behavior due to awareness of the study.

Question 21

strengths, weaknesses of field experiments

Answer 21

strengths:
- more natural setting with realsitic tasks; higher ecological validity.
- still control over iv and even some EVs
- participants unaware they are in a study, behaviour not affected

weaknesses:
- reduced control over EVs, making cause-and-effect conclusions harder.

Question 22

strengths, weaknesses of natural experiments

Answer 22

strengths:
- when iV is naturally ocuuring, eg gender or age, only type ofn expeirment conducted
- high levsl of control, (except IV), standardisation mean experiment can be replicated, results confirmed

weaknesses:
- no random allocation of participants to conditions (IV not under control)
- participants may change behavior bc they aware theyre in a study, results may be misleading

Question 23

target population, sample, representative

Answer 23

target population: the large group of people the researcher wishes to study.
- sample: a smaller group that represents the target population.
- representative: when the sample of participants matches the target population.

Question 24

Sampling methods

Answer 24

random sampling
- every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected.

opportunity sampling
- selecting the most readily available group of people.

systematic sampling
- selecting every nth person from a list or the target population.

stratified sampling
- selecting participants based on proportional representation in the target population.

Question 25

strengths and weaknesses of sampling methods

Answer 25

random sampling: - no researcher bias. - likely to be representative. - time-consuming. opportunity sampling: - quick and easy. - may not be representative; possible researcher bias. systematic sampling: - no researcher bias. - sample may not always be representative. stratified sampling: - highly representative. - very time-consuming.

Question 26

strengths and weaknesses of questionnaires

Answer 26

strengths: - collects information from many people quickly. - easier to analyze than interviews. - closed questions make conclusions easier to draw. weaknesses: - respondents may not give truthful answers due to social desirability bias. - may not understand difficult questions, reducing validity.

Question 27

Interviews

Answer 27

structured interviews - pre-set questions given in a fixed order. unstructured interviews - first question is set, and the rest are based on the interviewee’s answers. evaluation of interviews - produces a lot of information. - unstructured interviews allow for unexpected insights.

Question 28

non-experimental methods

Answer 28

surveys a method used to collect information from a large number of people using questionnaires or interviews. questionnaires a set of standardized questions on a topic given to all participants in a survey. closed questions - fixed response options (e.g., yes/no). - easy to analyze but lacks detail. open questions - any response can be given. - provides detailed insights but is harder to analyze.

Question 29

writing questionnaires

Answer 29

- questions must be clear and unambiguous. - avoid emotive language. - closed questions should not have more than one question in them.

Question 30

case study

Answer 30

an in-depth investigation of an individual, a small group, or an organization.

Question 31

case study strengths and weaknesses

Answer 31

strengths: - unbiased, increases validity. - good for studying rare behaviors. weaknesses: - often focuses on one individual/event, reducing validity. - subjective interpretation may bias findings.

Question 32

observational studies

Answer 32

a method of collecting information about behavior by watching and recording people's actions.

Question 33

categories of behavior

Answer 33

actions recorded as examples of target behavior.

Question 34

observation studies: strengths and weaknesses

Answer 34

**strengths:** - data is based on what people do rather than what they say they do, enhancing reliability. - looks at real-life behavior; people may not be aware they are being observed. **weaknesses:** - may be ethical issues (e.g., no consent in public places); some observations should not be conducted. - observer bias: expectations can influence what researchers see, reducing validity. - inter-observer reliability: how closely recorded results of two or more observers match; if they don't, they are inaccurate and should be discarded.

Question 35

correlation

Answer 35

a technique used by researchers to establish the strength of a relationship between two variables.

Question 36

correlation: positive, negative

Answer 36

positive correlation as one co-variable increases, so does the other (e.g., number of people in a room and noise level). negative correlation as one co-variable decreases, so does the other (e.g., number of people in a room and personal space). zero correlation : no relationship between co-variables.

Question 37

data handling

Answer 37

primary data data collected firsthand from the source (participants) by the researcher. secondary data data that is already published and just used rather than gathered by the researcher.

Question 38

types of data

Answer 38

quantitative data - data in numerical form (e.g., scores, time taken to complete a task). qualitative data - data in descriptive (non-numerical) form (e.g., verbal/written answers, observed behavior).

Question 39

ethics

Answer 39

ethical issues: points of concern about what is morally right. - informed consent - right to withdraw - protection from harm - deception - debriefing

Question 40

correlation strengths and weaknesses

Answer 40

strengths: - a good starting point for research if two variables are connected; gives ideas for future investigations. - can be used to investigate more complex relationships. weaknesses: - does not tell us whether one co-variable causes the other; cannot show cause and effect. - limits the usefulness of this technique. - extraneous variables may affect co-variables, leading to no control over evs and possible incorrect conclusions.