Research Methods Flashcards
1
Q
the experimental method
A
the manipulation of an independent variable to have an effect on the dependent variable which is measured
2
Q
aim
A
a general statement made by the researcher which tells us what they plan on investigative, the purpose of their study
they are developed from theories and from reading about other research
3
Q
hypothesis
A
a precise statement which clearly states the relationship between the variables being investigated
4
Q
non-directional hypothesis
A
- doesn’t state the direction of the relationship
- used when no previous research has been carried out OR research is contradictory
5
Q
directional hypothesis
A
- states the direction of the relationship
- used when there has already been a range of research carried out
6
Q
independent variable
A
the aspect of the experiment that has been manipulated by the researcher or changes naturally to have an effect on the DV
7
Q
Dependent variable
A
the aspect of the study which is measured by the researcher and has been caused by a change to the IV
8
Q
operationalisation
A
the act of clearly defining the variables in terms of how they are being measured
9
Q
extraneous variable
A
any other variable which is not the IV that affects the DV and does not vary systematically with the IV
10
Q
confounding variable
A
a variable other than the IV that has an effect on the DV, which changes systematically with the DV
11
Q
demand characteristics
A
any cue the researcher or research situation may give that makes the participant feel lie they can guess the aim of the investigation
12
Q
investigator effects
A
any unwanted influence from the researcher’s behaviour on the DV measured
13
Q
randomisation
A
the use of chance to reduce the effects of bias from investigator effects
14
Q
standardisation
A
using the exact same formalised procedures and instructions for every single participant involved in the research process
15
Q
laboratory design
A
- an experiment that takes place in a special environment whereby different variables can be carefully controlled
16
Q
field design
A
an experiment conducted in a more natural environment, where different variables can be carefully controlled
17
Q
quasi experiment
A
an experiment where the IV has not been changed by the researcher, instead it naturally exists
e.g. gender differences
18
Q
natural experiment
A
an experiment where the IV is not bought about by the researcher
e.g. earthquakes
19
Q
population
A
the group of people the research is focused on, and the sample is drawn from these
20
Q
opportunity sampling
A
convenient recruitment - participants are available at the time
21
Q
random sampling
A
all members of the population have an equal chance of selection
22
Q
systematic sampling
A
a predetermined system is used - every nth person
23
Q
stratified sampling
A
the composition of the sample represents the proportions of people in the stratas of the population
24
Q
volunteer sampling
A
the participant is self selected
25
independent groups
the participants only perform in one condition of the IV
26
repeated measures
the same participants take part in all the conditions of the IV
27
matched pairs
participants are placed in pairs based upon a variable which affects the DV.
Each member of a pair does a different condition
28
pilot study
a small scale version of an investigation which is done before the real study, in order to identify potential problems
29
single blind procedure
the researchers don't tell the participant if they are receiving the real or placebo treatment
30
double blind
a research procedure in which neither the participants or the experimenter knows who is receiving a particular treatment
31
control group
sets a baseline whereby results from an experimental condition can be compared to the results of this one
32
naturalistic observation
watching and recording behaviour in the setting where it would normally occur
33
controlled observation
watching and recording behaviour in a structured environment
34
overt observation
participants know that they are being observed
35
covert observation
participants do not know they are being observed
36
participant observation
the researcher who is observing is part of the group that is being observed
37
non participant observation
the researcher observes from a distance and is not part of the group being observed
38
observer bias
an observer's reports are biased by what they expect to see
39
inter observer reliability
multiple observers conduct the study, and their reports are compared
40
formula to calculate inter observer reliability
total number of agreements / total number of observations
x 100
anything above 80% = high inter observer reliability
41
unstructured observation
continuous recording where the researcher writes everything they see
42
structured observation
the researcher quantifies what they are observing using a predetermined list of behaviours and sampling methods
43
behavioural categories
when a target behaviour which is being observed is broken up into more precise components which are observable and measurable
44
time sampling
the recording of behaviour within a timeframe that is pre-established before the study
45
event sampling
counting the number of times a particular behaviour is carried out
46
correlation
- a mathematical technique that is used to investigate an association between two co-variables
- the co-variables are measured, not manipulated
- only an association is found, not a cause and effect relationship
47
correlation coefficients
a value that determines the strength and relationship between two variables
48
negative correlation
when one variable increases the other decreases
correlation coefficient of less than 0
49
positive correlation
when one variable increases the other also increases
it has a correlation coefficient of more than 0
50
zero correlation
no relationship is found between the co-variables
correlation coefficient of 0
51
curvilinear relationship
as one variable increases, so does the other, but only up to a certain point. after this point, as one increases the other decreases
this forms an inverted U shape
52
qualitative data
data which is displayed in words, non-numerical
53
quantitative data
data that is displayed numerically, not in words
54
primary data
obtained first hand by the researcher
55
secondary data
information collected by someone else
56
meta analysis
when a researcher combines results from many different studies
57
measures of central tendency
any measure which calculates an average value within a set of data
- mean
- median
- mode
58
59
mean average
the total of all values in a data set is divided by the number of values
60
median average
data is arranged from highest to lowest and middle value is selected
61
mode average
most frequently occuring value in a set of data
62
measures of dispersion
any measure that calculates the variation in a set of data
- range
- standard deviation
63
range
the difference between the largest and smallest score
64
standard deviation
a low standard deviation means the data is clustered close to the mean
65
bar charts
- allows for differences to be seen
- discrete data
- bars don't touch
66
histograms
- bars touch
- continuous data
67
line graphs
- continuous data
- points are connected to show the change of values
68
scattergrams
- used to show associations between variables, not differences
69
normal distribution
a symmetrical pattern of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped pattern
70
skewed distribution
a spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, and is all clustered at one end
71
positive skew
data is collected on the right
72
negative skew
data is mostly collected on the left
73
peer review definiton
the assessment of scientific work by experts in the same field, in order to ensure that research is of high quality
74
main purposes of peer review
- to know which research is worthwhile funding
- to validate the relevance and quality of research (preventing fraudulent information being shared with the public
- to suggest amendments or improvements
75
peer review evaluation
- may not be honest - reviewers may give subjective opinions, or negatively impact a competitors report
- publication bias - press prefer positive results
- hard to find an expert
- research that opposes mainstream theories tends to be suppressed
76
psychology of the economy
how what we learn from psychological research influences our country's economy
the economy is the state of the region's activities of producing or consuming goods and services
77
how much does absence from work cost the economy
average of 15 billion pounds
78
case study
a detailed study into the life of a person which covers great detail into their background. it looks at the past and present behaviour of an individual to build up a case history
79
content analysis
studying human behaviour indirectly by studying things that we produce - TV adverts, newspapers etc
it allows us to have insight into the values, beliefs and prejudices of our society
80
how to conduct a content analysis
- identify hypothesis
- create a coding system
- gather resources
- analyse data which is qualitative and descriptive
- write up a scientific report
81
nominal data
categorical data
discrete
no sensitive analysis
82
ordinal data
data which is represented in a ranking form
equal intervals between units
lacks precision as it is subjective
83
interval data
data based on numerical scales which include units of precisely defined size
needed for parametric tests
84
sections of a scientific report
abstract
introduction
method
results
discussion
references
85
what is included in an abstract
- a key summary of all the details of the research report
- includes aim, hypothesis, method, results and conclusion
- 150 - 200 words long
- read to know if the research study is worth examining further
86
what is included in an introduction
information of past research on a similar topic, where relevant theories, studies and concepts are mentioned
87
what is included in the method section
- a description of what the researchers exactly did when they undertook the study
- design, sample (target population, sampling method, data of participants), materials used, procedure, ethics etc
- there should be sufficient detail included so that any other person is able to read this section and replicate precisely.
88
what is included in the results section
this includes all the findings from the study, presented with inferential and descriptive statistics
if qualitative data is used, it may include thematic analysis
89
what is included in the discussion section
where the researcher considers what he findings exactly mean for us and psychological theories
usually, the findings are summarised and then discussed in context to the introduction
limitations, ways to improve and wider implications for society are also included.
90
what is included in the referencing section
a list of all the sources that were quoted or referred to in the report
full details of each source must be given so the reader can find the exact item
91
statistical testing
a way of determining whether hypotheses should be accepted or rejected
it tells us if differences or relationships are statistically significant or due to chance
92
order of tests in table
independent, rm / mp, correlation
nominal, ordinal, interval
chi-squared, sign text, chi-squared
mann-whitney, wilcoxon, spearman's rho
unrelated t-test, related t-test, pearson's R
93
critical value
the numerical boundary that stands between accepting or rejecting the null hypothesis
94
independent measures
nominal data
chi-squared
95
repeated measures
nominal data
sign test
96
correlation
nominal data
chi-squared
97
independent groups
ordinal data
mann-whitney
98
matched pairs
ordinal data
wilcoxon
99
correlation
ordinal data
spearman's rho
100
independent groups
interval data
unrelated-t test
101
repeated measures
interval data
related-t test
102
correlation
interval data
pearson's R
103
rule of R
if there is an R in the same of the statistical test, the calculated value has to be gReater or equal to the critical value in order for the result to be significant
104
null hypothesis
there is no difference / correlation between the conditions
105
probability
a calculation of how likely it is for an event to happen
0 = statistical impossibility
1 = statistical certainty
106
P value
usual level of significance is 0.05 (0.01 if there is any risk like medical trials)
therefore the p value is equal to or less than 0.05, which means that the probability of it being due to chance is 5% or less
107
type 1 error
error of optimism
incorrect rejection of a null hypothesis which is actually true
false positive
108
type 2 error
error of pessimism
failure to reject the null hypothesis when it is true
false negative
109
paradigm
a set of shared ideas and assumptions within a certain discipline
110
paradigm shift
a significant change in the central assumptions within a scientific discipline
111
theory defintion
a set of general principles and laws that can be used to explain specific events or behaviours
112
deduction defintion
deriving new hypotheses from an already existing theory
113
falsifiability definition
the principle that a theory cannot be considered unscientific unless it allows itself to be proven untrue
114
replicability
the extent to which scientific methods and their results can be repeated by other researchers across other contexts and circumstances
115
objectivity
when all possible biases from the researcher are minimised so that they don't influence or distort the research process
116
the empirical method
when evidence is collected through making direct observations and though direct experiences
117
informed consent
participant must be told about the purpose of the investigation and any risks
it allows them to decide if they want to participate
118
prior general consent
participants give permission to take part in many studies where one involves deception so they essentially consent to being deceived
119
presumptive consent
when the researcher gathers opinions from a similar group to the study's sample, but not the actual participants
120
retrospective consent
when participants are asked for their consent after the study
121
deception
the act of deliberately withholding information form or misleading participants in the study
this can only be used when the participants could guess the aims of the investigation or when it will not cause distress
122
debriefing
the true nature and purpose of the study must be explained, and the participants should be told what their data is being used for
123
protection from harm
participants must be protected from physical and psychological harm
124
cost benefit analysis
when the pros and cons are weighed up to determine if the study's ethical implications are worth the benefit to wider society
125
right of privacy
participants have a right to control how much of their information is released and how it is used
126
confidentiality
the right that participants have that their personal data being protected
127
questionnaires
these assess a person's thoughts or experiences through a number of written questions
128
interviews
this involves a live encounter where a set of questions is asked by an interviewer to an interviewee to assess their thoughts or experiences
129
open questions
questions which are phrased in a way that the participant is free to answer however they like
collects qualitative data
130
closed questions
questions which restrict the participant to a fixed number of responses
collects quantitative data
131
things to consider when designing questionnaires
- clarity (the questions must be phrased in a way that it is clear on what answer is needed)
- avoiding jaron, emotive language, double barrelled questions, double negatives and leading questions
- question sequencing (should get harder as it goes along)
- filler questions (used to distract the participant from guessing the real aim)
- pilot study ( used to ensure that the questionnaire is suitable)
132
structured interview
- involves a set of predetermined questions to be asked during the interview
133
unstructured interview
- no predetermined questions, instead is more conversational
- allows for questions to be individually tailored.
134
semi-structured interview
- questions are predetermined, but interviewer has freedom to ask any further follow up questions
135
internal reliability
describes how consistent something is within itself
136
split half method
randomly select half of the questions and out them in one form and do the same for the others
the two forms of the same test are then done separately and should yield the same score
137
external reliability
when consistent results are produced regardless of when the investigation is used or who admisters it
138
improving reliability in a questionnaire
- replace some of the open questions with closed, less ambiguous questions
139
improving reliability in an interview
- use same interviewer
- if ont, use trained interviewers
- no leading / ambiguous questions
- use structured interview layout
140
improving reliability in an observation
- ensuring that behavioural categories are properly operationalised
- categories should not overlap
141
validity
the extent to which results of a research study are legitimate
142
internal validity
whether the outcomes observed in an experiment are due to manipulation of the IV and not any other factor
143
face validity
whether it appears to measure what it is supposed to
144
external validity
is it generalisable to other settings, populations and eras
145
ecological validity
the extent to which the surroundings can be generalised to other situations and settings
146
temporal validity
generalisability to other historical times and eras
147
population validity
generalisability to different populations of various ages, genders and cultures
148
concurrent validity
the extent to which a psychological measure compares to a similar existing measure
149
predictive validity
how well a test can predict future events or behaviours
150
improving validity in experiments
- use a control group
- standardise procedures
- use of single / double blind procedures
151
improving validity in questionnaires
- incorporate a lie scale
- assuring respondents all data is anonymous
152
improving validity in observations
- minimal intervention by researcher
- covert
- specific, distinguishable behavioural catergories
153
