Research Methods 5,6 Flashcards
(96 cards)
1
Q
What is the primary purpose of observations in research?
A
To watch and record behaviour
Observations involve the researcher carefully identifying and categorizing specific behaviours they are interested in studying.
2
Q
What are the two main types of observations?
A
- Controlled observations
- Naturalistic observations
3
Q
What is a controlled observation?
A
An observation conducted in a controlled environment
This may involve using one-way mirrors or video recording to monitor participants.
4
Q
What is a naturalistic observation?
A
An observation conducted in a natural setting where participants are unaware they are being observed
This approach aims to capture authentic behaviour.
5
Q
What is an advantage of controlled observations?
A
Increased internal validity
Controlled observations allow the researcher to manipulate variables and reduce extraneous factors.
6
Q
Why are controlled observations considered replicable?
A
Due to high control and standardized procedures.
7
Q
What is a limitation of controlled observations related to demand characteristics?
A
Participants’ behaviour may be affected because they know they are being observed.
8
Q
What is low ecological validity in the context of controlled observations?
A
Behaviour observed may not reflect real-life behaviour outside the study.
9
Q
True or False: Controlled observations always reflect how participants behave in their natural environment.
A
False
10
Q
Fill in the blank: Controlled observations have a high degree of control over _______.
A
extraneous variables
11
Q
What are naturalistic observations?
A
Participants’ behaviour is watched and measured in a natural environment.
12
Q
What is a key advantage of naturalistic observations?
A
High ecological validity: Participants are in a natural environment, leading to natural behaviour.
13
Q
How do naturalistic observations reduce demand characteristics?
A
Participants may be unaware they are part of a study, leading to natural behaviour.
14
Q
Why are naturalistic observations considered ethical for socially sensitive research?
A
They allow study of variables that would be unethical to manipulate in a controlled setting.
15
Q
What is a limitation of naturalistic observations?
A
Low control over extraneous variables, reducing internal validity.
16
Q
What makes replication of naturalistic observations difficult?
A
Low control over extraneous variables and lack of standardised procedures.
17
Q
Define overt observations.
A
The observer is clearly visible, and participants know they are being observed.
18
Q
What is a strength of overt observations?
A
They are not unethical as participants can give informed consent.
19
Q
What is a limitation of overt observations?
A
Demand characteristics may confound results, decreasing internal validity.
20
Q
Define covert observations.
A
The observer is not clearly visible, and participants do not know they are being observed.
21
Q
What is a strength of covert observations?
A
Demand characteristics will not confound results, increasing internal validity.
22
Q
What is a weakness of covert observations?
A
There can be ethical issues as participants cannot give informed consent.
23
Q
What are participant observations?
A
The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour he/she is observing.
Participant observations allow researchers to gain deeper insight into the behaviors and experiences of the group being studied.
24
Q
What is a strength of participant observations?
A
Increased insight into the lives of the participants.
This strength may increase the internal validity of the study.
25
What is a limitation of participant observations regarding researcher presence?
The presence of the researcher may confound the results.
## Footnote
This can cause participants to behave unnaturally, decreasing the internal validity of the study.
26
How can researcher bias affect participant observations?
Researcher bias may confound results due to loss of objectivity.
## Footnote
Being too involved in the group can lead to biased interpretations, reducing internal validity.
27
What are non-participant observations?
The researcher remains outside of the group and does not become a member of the group being observed.
## Footnote
Non-participant observations allow for a different perspective on the group's behavior.
28
What is a strength of non-participant observations?
Presence of the researcher is unlikely to confound the results.
## Footnote
Participants are likely to behave naturally, which increases the internal validity of the study.
29
How does researcher bias affect non-participant observations?
Researcher bias is unlikely to confound results.
## Footnote
The researcher can maintain objectivity, which enhances the internal validity of the results.
30
What is a limitation of non-participant observations?
Decreased insight into the participants' experiences.
## Footnote
The researcher may miss important subtleties and gather less data than in participant observations.
31
Fill in the blank: Researcher bias could potentially confound the results of any observation because the results reflect the researcher's _______.
[subjective interpretation of what they see].
## Footnote
This can be mitigated by operationalizing behavioral categories and assessing inter-observer reliability.
32
What should consent forms include?
A range of both procedural and ethical points
## Footnote
Procedural points detail participant tasks, while ethical points cover participant rights.
33
What procedural information should be included in a consent form?
Participants' expected actions, understanding checks, and a space for questions
## Footnote
This ensures clarity and comprehension of the study.
34
What ethical considerations must be communicated to participants?
No pressure to consent, withdrawal rights, data confidentiality, and debriefing
## Footnote
These points protect participant rights and ensure ethical standards.
35
True or False: Participants can withdraw their data from the study.
True
## Footnote
Participants have the right to withdraw their data at any time.
36
Fill in the blank: Consent forms must be written in a _______ tone.
formal
## Footnote
A formal tone ensures professionalism and clarity.
37
What must participants sign on the consent form?
Their consent to participate, along with a signature and date
## Footnote
This formalizes their agreement to take part in the study.
38
What rights do participants have regarding their participation?
* Voluntary participation
* Right to withdraw at any time
* Right to withdraw their data post-study
## Footnote
These rights are fundamental to ethical research practices.
39
What should be done to ensure participants understand what is being asked of them?
Check their understanding and ask if they have any questions
## Footnote
This promotes informed consent and participant engagement.
40
What is the purpose of the debrief in a study?
To inform participants about the study's aim and procedures
## Footnote
The debrief serves to clarify the study's objectives and ensure participants understand their involvement.
41
What should be included in the debrief regarding participant expectations?
Explain what participants in both conditions were expected to do
## Footnote
This ensures transparency and clarity about the study's procedures.
42
What confidentiality measures should be reminded to participants during the debrief?
Information remains confidential
## Footnote
Confidentiality is crucial to protect participants' privacy.
43
What right should participants be reminded of during the debrief?
The right to withdraw from the investigation
## Footnote
Participants should always have the option to withdraw their data.
44
What should be described to participants in the debrief?
The results of the study
## Footnote
Sharing results contributes to participants' understanding of the study's findings.
45
What opportunity should be provided to participants during the debrief?
Allow participants the opportunity to ask any questions
## Footnote
This promotes a supportive environment for participants.
46
What should participants be informed about if they experience psychological harm?
They can contact the researcher for help and support
## Footnote
Providing support is essential for participant welfare.
47
What should participants confirm regarding their results in the debrief?
Whether they still consent to their results being used
## Footnote
This is important for maintaining ethical standards in research.
48
What is meant by the term 'peer review'?
The process by which psychological research papers are subjected to independent scrutiny by other psychologists before publication.
49
What is the role of peer review in the scientific process?
To ensure scientific validity and reduce the chances of flawed research being accepted as fact.
50
What are the four options reviewers can recommend during peer review?
* Accept the work unconditionally
* Accept it with improvements
* Reject it but suggest revisions and resubmission
* Reject it outright
51
What are some purposes of peer review?
* Ensure quality and relevance of research
* Ensure accuracy of findings
* Evaluate proposed designs for research funding
52
True or False: The role of peer review is to ensure only significant results are published.
False
53
What is the importance of peer review in relation to subsequent research?
Many other researchers' subsequent research may be built upon the published research.
54
How does peer review act as a 'gatekeeper'?
It aims to reduce the chances of flawed or unscientific research being accepted as fact.
55
What is the verification process in peer review?
Experts scrutinize research to determine its scientific validity.
56
What is typically included in the feedback from peer reviewers?
Weaknesses, problem areas, and suggestions for improvement.
57
What is a Pilot Study?
A small scale study that is carried out before the main study in order to check procedures.
## Footnote
Pilot studies help identify potential issues before the full-scale research begins.
58
What is the primary purpose of conducting a pilot study?
To check procedures before the main study begins.
## Footnote
This includes assessing the feasibility and effectiveness of the study design.
59
What aspects are checked during a pilot study? List at least three.
* Timings
* Participants' understanding of the procedure
* Leading/ambiguous questions in questionnaires/interviews
## Footnote
Other aspects may include operationalisation of behavioural categories and clarity of standardised instructions.
60
True or False: Pilot studies can help determine the number of participants needed for the main study.
True
## Footnote
Pilot studies can provide insights into participant requirements for the main study.
61
Fill in the blank: A pilot study allows researchers to identify _______ that can be improved before the main study.
[flaws]
## Footnote
This is crucial for enhancing the quality of the research.
62
How do pilot studies contribute to the internal validity of research?
They improve the quality of research by identifying and addressing potential issues before the main study.
## Footnote
Improved internal validity increases the reliability of findings.
63
What can researchers ask participants during a pilot study?
About their experience of taking part.
## Footnote
This feedback can provide valuable insights into the study design.
64
What is one potential outcome of conducting a pilot study?
To prevent wasting time and collecting unusable data.
## Footnote
This helps ensure that resources are used effectively during the main study.
65
What does operationalisation refer to in the context of a pilot study?
The process of defining and measuring behavioural categories in observational research.
## Footnote
Proper operationalisation is essential for accurate data collection.
66
Why is it important to check the clarity of standardised instructions in a pilot study?
To ensure participants understand the study procedures.
## Footnote
Clear instructions help reduce confusion and improve data quality.
67
What do correlations suggest in research?
Correlations can suggest trends that can lead to experiments.
## Footnote
Establishing a relationship allows for further investigation into cause and effect.
68
Why are correlations useful when experiments would be impossible or unethical?
Correlations provide insight into naturally occurring variables that cannot be ethically tested in experiments.
## Footnote
Example: hours spent in daycare and aggressiveness.
69
What is a strength of correlational analysis regarding ecological validity?
Correlations have high ecological validity as they examine naturally occurring variables.
## Footnote
This enhances the applicability of findings to real-world situations.
70
What is a major limitation of correlational analysis?
Correlations do not establish cause and effect.
## Footnote
They only measure the degree of interrelationship between variables.
71
What is the difference between correlations and experiments?
Correlations involve two variables without IV or DV, while experiments have an IV and DV.
## Footnote
Experiments establish cause and effect, while correlations establish relationships.
72
What does a hypothesis in an experiment state?
The hypothesis states that there will be a difference in the DV as a result of the IV.
## Footnote
This indicates a clear cause-and-effect relationship.
73
What does a hypothesis in correlational analysis state?
The hypothesis states that there will be a correlation/relationship between the two variables.
## Footnote
This does not imply causation.
74
In experiments, what is controlled to ensure valid results?
Lab experiments control extraneous variables to avoid confounding influences.
## Footnote
This increases confidence in the findings of the experiment.
75
What might affect the findings of a correlational study?
The findings might be affected by other variables or might demonstrate a 'chance' relationship.
## Footnote
This is a potential issue when interpreting correlation data.
76
Fill in the blank: Correlations can provide insight into areas of psychology that we wouldn't be able to investigate in any other way, especially when it would be _______.
unethical.
77
What is one advantage of using behavioural categories in research?
Enables the behavior to be operationalised
## Footnote
This means that researchers can define and measure behaviors in a structured way.
78
How do behavioural categories provide clarity for researchers?
Provides clear focus for the researcher
## Footnote
This helps researchers concentrate on specific aspects of behavior.
79
What is a benefit of behavioural categories regarding hypotheses?
Enables proposal of a testable hypothesis
## Footnote
This allows researchers to formulate hypotheses that can be empirically tested.
80
What advantage do behavioural categories offer in data recording?
Allow for more objective data recording
## Footnote
This reduces bias in how data is collected and interpreted.
81
How do behavioural categories affect reliability in research?
Should result in greater reliability (particularly inter-rater)
## Footnote
This means that different researchers are likely to reach similar conclusions.
82
What type of data do behavioural categories provide?
Quantitative data that is easy to analyse
## Footnote
This facilitates statistical analysis and comparison.
83
What is a primary disadvantage of breaking behavior into categories?
It is arbitrary and could make artificial distinctions
## Footnote
This means that the categories may not accurately reflect the complexity of behaviors.
84
What impact do arbitrary behavioural categories have on observational data?
Reduces the internal validity of the observational data
## Footnote
This can lead to important behaviors being overlooked or misrepresented.
85
Fill in the blank: The main disadvantage of behavioural categories is that it could lead to _______.
[missing certain forms of behaviour]
86
What is event sampling?
Event sampling is when observers decide on a specific event relevant to the investigation and record it every time it is observed.
## Footnote
Useful for infrequent behaviors, such as counting disagreements with a referee during a football match.
87
What is time sampling?
Time sampling involves observing and recording only behavior that occurs at given points in time, such as every 5 minutes.
## Footnote
An example is noting aggressive physical interactions in a preschool playgroup during 5-minute intervals.
88
What is a strength of event sampling?
The strength of event sampling is that the observer aims to record all behavior, making the results likely to be valid.
89
What is a limitation of event sampling?
A limitation of event sampling is that many observations can happen at once, making it difficult to record all behavior accurately.
90
What is a strength of time sampling?
The strength of time sampling is that the observer has time to record what they have seen, leading to likely valid results.
91
What is a limitation of time sampling?
A limitation of time sampling is that some behaviors will occur outside of the intervals, potentially making the results not representative.
92
What is inter-rater reliability in observational research?
Inter-rater reliability refers to the agreement between multiple observers to ensure reliable observations.
93
What are the steps to ensure inter-rater reliability?
The steps include:
* Conducting a careful pilot study
* Performing trial observations with all observers
* Using the same behavioral categories
* Correlating observation scores
* Ensuring a strong positive correlation indicates reliability.
94
True or False: An undisclosed observation is likely to produce more valid data than a disclosed observation.
True.
95
Fill in the blank: Time sampling records behavior at given points in _______.
[time intervals]
96
What might happen if inter-rater reliability scores are not strongly correlated?
If scores are not strongly correlated, more training or a change in behavioral categories may be required.
