Sammafattning Flashcards
(192 cards)
1
Q
There are 3 main reasons to study OB:
A
Understanding, predicting, influencing
2
Q
What is OB
A
A way of thinking
Multidisciplinary
Humanistic orientation
Performance-oriented
Based on recognized disciplines
Has an application orientation
3
Q
organisations are
A
Groups of people who work independently towards the same
purpose.
4
Q
Fredrick Taylor’s
Scientific Management
A
“Workman are unable to
understand the real science of
doing this class of work”
“ He is so stupid that the word
percentage has no meaning to
him”
5
Q
Henry Fayol’s
Functions of Management
A
Planing
Organizing
Commanding
Coordinating
6
Q
New prespective of organizational effectiveness
A
Open systems perspective
Organizational Learning perspective
High-Performance Work Prespective
Stakeholder Perpective
7
Q
Need to consider both stock and flow of knowledge
A
Stock: Intellectual Capital (Knowledge, skills, abilities
employees carry, and structured capital) Knowledge captured
and retained
Flow: Organizational learning processes of acquisition sharing
and use.
8
Q
Interlectual capital
A
Human Capital: knowledge that people possess and generate.
Structured Capital: Knowledge captured in systems and structures
Relationship Captial: Values derived from satisfied Customers reliable
suppliers etc..
9
Q
Learning process
A
- knowledge acqusition
- knowledge sharing
- Knowlegde use
10
Q
How do organizations retain intellectual capital?
A
Retain good employees
Transferring knowledge to others
Transferring human capital to structural capital
11
Q
High performance work practices persepective
A
effective orgs incorporate workplace practices that leverage the potential of human capital.
ex:
- Employee involvement and job autonomy- more motivation
- Employee competence- Training and selection
Performance based rewards- improve employee performance
12
Q
values are
A
relatively stable, evaluative belieft that guide a persons preferences for outcomes or courses of action in a variety of situation
13
Q
ethics are
A
the study of morla principles or values that determine weather actions and their outcomes are right and good or not
14
Q
CSR
A
org activities that intend to benefit socielty and the enviropment beyond the firms immideate financial intrest or legal obligations
15
Q
Surface level diversity
A
observable demographic and physiological differences in people such as race, age, ethnicity, gender and physical disabilities
16
Q
Deep-level diversiy
A
diferens in phycological characteristics of employees including personality, beliefs, values and attitudes.
17
Q
Organizational structure is
A
the devision of labour as well as patterns of coordination, communication, workflow and formal power that direct organisations activities
18
Q
Organisational structure;
A
- Includes reporting relationships, but also relates to job design,
information flow, work standards and rules, team dynamics, and
power relations. - Organizational structures are frequently used as tools for
organizational change because they establish new communication - patterns and align employee behavior with the corporate vision.
19
Q
Elements of organizational Structure
A
Span of control
Centralization/ Decentralization
Formalization
Departmentalization
20
Q
Centralization and Decentralization
A
The degree to which decision authority is held by small groups of people,
typically those at the top of the organizational hierarchy.
In the beginning companies started by being centralized but as they
grow and expand their range of products, they start to disperse decision
authority and power throughout the organization ( decentralization)
21
Q
Formalization
A
The degree to which organizations standardize behavior through rules,
procedures, formal training and related mechanisms.
In other words companies are typically more formalized if they rely on
standardized work processes.
Formalization increases as firms get older, larger and more regulated.
22
Q
Organic Structures:
A
An organizational structure with wide span of control,
little formalization and decentralized decision making.
23
Q
Liability of Newness-
A
When startups are launched, they start by being
organic. The problem is that they lack sufficient knowledge regarding
the industry making them more inefficient.
24
Q
Mechanistic Structures:
A
org structure with narrow span of control and high degree of formalisation and centralisation. Operate better in stable environments because they rely on efficiency
and routine behaviors. Mechanistic decision making at lower levels,
tall hierarchy of people and specialized roles.
25
Mechanic organizations are
- narrow and technical task definitions and knowledge requirement
- Vague and indirect linkage between individs job contribution and orgs purpose
- Rigid and routined tasks
- Specific techniques, obligations and rights
26
Organic organizations
- broad an general task definitions and knowledge requirement
- Clear or directs linkage between individ contribution and orgs purpose
- Flexible and varied tasks
- General specifications of techniques, obligations and rights
27
Departmentalisation
It specifies how employees and their activities are grouped together. Is a
fundamental strategy for coordinating organizational activities
28
Functions of departamentalisation
1. establish chain of command- establishes interdependencies
among employees and subunits.
2. Create common mental model measure of performance- typically anchored around the common budgets and
measures of performance
3. Encourages coordination through informal communication- use
frequent and informal interaction to get the work done.
29
Different organisational structures
1. Functional
2. Divisional
3. Team based
4. Matrix (project based)
5. Network
6. Virtual
7. Boundaryless
30
Functional organisational structure
employees are organized around specific knowledge or other resources (e.g. finance, production, marketing)
31
Good/ bad Functional
Benefits:
– Economy of scale
– Supports professional identity and career paths
– Easier supervision
– creates specialised pools of talent that typically serve everyone in the organization
Limitations:
– More emphasis on subunit than organizational goals
– Higher dysfunctional conflict
- Poorer coordination- requires more controle
32
Divisional Organizational Structure
employees are organized around:
- geographic areas
- outputs (products or services)
- clients.
33
good/bad devisional
Benefits
– Building block structure -- accommodates growth
– Focuses on markets/products/clients
Limitations
– Duplication, inefficient use of resources
– Specializations are dispersed--silos of knowledge
– Politics/conflict when two forms of equal value
34
Team-Based Structure
built around self-directed teams that complete
an entire piece of work.
usually;
- organic
- wide span of control
- highly decentralized
- low formalization
- within manufacturing or service
35
Good/bad team based
Benefits
– Responsive, flexible
– Lower admin costs
– Quicker, more informed decisions
Limitations
– Interpersonal training costs
– Slower during team development
– Role ambiguity increases stress
– Problems with supervisor role changes
– Duplication of resources
36
Matrix structure (project based)
overlays two structures (such as a geographic divisional and a functional structure) in order to leverage the
benefits of both.
37
Good/bad Matrix
Benefits
– Uses resources and expertise effectively
– Improves communication, flexibility, innovation
– Focuses specialists on clients and products
– Supports knowledge sharing within specialty
– Solution when two divisions have equal importance
Limitations
– Increases goal conflict and ambiguity
– Two bosses dilutes accountability
– More conflict, organizational politics, and stress
38
Network Organizational Structure
An alliance of several organizations for the purpose of creating a product or serving a client.
39
Good/bad Network
Benefits
– Highly flexible
– Potentially better use of skills and technology
– Not saddled with same resources for all products
Limitations
– Exposed to market forces
– Less control over subcontractors than in-house
40
Virtual Organizations
Collection of geographically distributed, functionally and/or culturally diverse individuals linked by electronic communication
41
Boundary less Organizations
Chains of command are eliminated, Spans of control are unlimited, Empowered teams replace rigid departments
42
national culture is
sum total of beliefs, rituals, rules, customs,
artifacts, and institutions that characterize the population of a nation
43
Organizational culture
The values and assumptions shared within an organization
It defines what is important and unimportant in the company and,
consequently, directs everyone in the organization toward the “right way” of
doing things. You might think of organizational culture as the organization’s
DNA— invisible to the naked eye, yet a powerful template that shapes what
happens in the workplace
44
Artifacts in Organizational Culture
Observable symbols and signs of culture
Physical structures, ceremonies, language, stories
Maintain and transmit organization’s culture
Not easy to decipher artifacts -- need many of them
45
Artifacts ex:
- Physical structures/symbols
- Stories and legends
- rituals and ceremonies
- language
46
Organizational Culture and Its Effects
Culture provides and encourages stability
The more employees share and accept the core values, the stronger the culture and the more influential it is on behavior
47
Two functions of countercultures:
- provide surveillance and critique, ethics
- source of emerging values
48
Organizational Socialization Defined
The process by which individuals learn the values, expected behaviors, and
social knowledge necessary to assume their roles in the organization
49
Socialisation stages
1. anticipatory
2. accommodation
3. role management
50
Mentoring
a friend, coach, advisor or sponsor who supports, encourages, and helps
a less experienced protégé.
Either has career function psychological function
51
Phases of mentoring relationship
1. initiation- relationship starts and starts having impotance
2. cultivation- career and psycological functions give max result
3. seperation- change in structure role or emotional experience
4. Redefinition- relationship ended or now just friends
52
Merging org cultures
1. Assimilation :)
2. Deculturation :(
3. Integration 1+1=1 new
4. Seperation 1+1= 2
53
Changing/Strengthening Organizational Culture
- Actions of founders/leaders
- align artifacts to keep culture in place
- Introducing Culturally Consistent Rewards to reinforce culturally consistent behaviour
- Attracting, Selecting, Socializing Employees
54
Primary diversity dimensions
age, getc- stable
55
Secondary diversity dimensions
education, health, marital status - Changable
56
benefitd diversity
- Enhanced
decision quality
- Better connection with customers.
- More creative innovation
- Higher financial performance
57
Problems arising with increased diversity
- miscommunication
- insensitivity
- ignorance
- hostility
58
Ability
person’s talent to perform a mental or physical task.
Generally stable over time.
59
skill
learned talent acquired in order to perform a task
60
Attitude definition
An attitude is a mental state of readiness, learned and optimized through experience.
61
Attitudes are:
- Are learned
- Define one’s predispositions
- Are the emotional basis of interpersonal relations and identifications with others
- Are closely linked to personality
- Are subject to change
62
attitudes are linked to
- Perception
- Personality
- Feelings
- Motivation
63
components of attitudes
1. Cognition
2. Affect
3. Behaviour
64
1. Cognition
A person’s perceptions, opinions, and beliefs
65
2. affect
Emotional components of attitudes; learned from parents, teachers, peers
66
3. Behavior
The tendency to act in a certain way toward someone or something
67
Cognitive Dissonance
Discrepancy between attitude and behavior, ex Knowing that smoking is bad for
your health, but continuing to smoke. Creates discomfort, which individuals attempt to reduce or eliminate
68
Job satisfaction is
an attitude toward a job. Results from a perception of the job and the fit between the worker and the
organization
69
factors linked to job satisfaction
- pay
- the work itself
- promotion opportunities
- supervision
- coworkers
- work conditions
- job security
70
Personality
The combination of stable physical and mental characteristics that give the
individual his or her identity. Personality is a function of genetic and environmental interaction.
71
big 5 personality types
O-penness to experience
C-onscientiousness
E-xtraversion
A-greeableness
N-euroticism (emotional stability)
72
Locus of control
The degree to which one believes their behavior influences what happens to
them
- Internals believe their good performance is due to their effort or skill
- Externals believe they are controlled by outside forces over which they
have little, if any, control
73
Self-Efficacy is
Personal beliefs regarding competencies and abilities. Beliefs are learned, and tend to be task-specific
74
Self-efficacy dimensions
1. Magnitude
2. Strength
3. Generality
75
Magnitude
the level of task difficulty that individuals believe they
can attain
76
Strength
refers to whether the belief is weak or strong
77
Generality
how generalized across different situations the belief in capability is
78
creativity is
A personality trait. The ability to break away from habit-bound thinking and produce novel and
useful ideas
79
Emotions
Defined as a state of physiological arousal accompanied by changes in facial expressions, gestures, posture, and subjective feeling.
80
Emotional inteligence dimensions
1. Self awareness- own emotions
2. Social awareness- empathy
3. Self management- emotional labour
4. Relationship management- listen to others
81
Perceptions
Perception is based on prior experience. It is the cognitive process by which one selects,
organizes, and gives meaning to environmental stimuli
82
Individual perception process
1. Stimuli
2. Observation
3. Selection
4. Translation
5. Response
83
Schemas
A framework embodying descriptions of people, situations, or
objects
84
Schema inaccuracies and distortions can result from…
1. Stereotyping
2. Halo effect
3. Selective attention
4. Similar-to-me errors
5. Situational factors
6. Neeeds and desire
85
Self- fulfilling prophecy
Someones expectations about another causes the individual to behave in a manner consistent with those expectation
86
positive/negative self fulfillin prophecy
Golem/Pymalion
87
Perceptual grouping
- nearness
- similarity
- closure
- figure& ground
88
Stereotyping
A translation step in the perceptual process
89
Social Perception and Social Identity processes
1. Categorization process
- compare characteristics of our groups with other groups
2. Homogenization process
- similar traits within a group; different traits across groups
3. Differentiation process
- develop less favourable images of people in groups other than
our own
90
Selective attention
giving prioritisation to some messages and putting other on hold
91
Divided attention
Occurs when mental efforts are decided among tasks. some stimuli require more attention.
92
Attribution Theory
Behavior is greatly influenced by our personal interpretation of reality.
internal and external attributions
93
Attribution Process
1. event
2. analyse cause
3. Reinforce or modify assumptions of cause
4. choices regarding future behaviour
94
Attribution theory DCC
Distinctiveness (Tasks)
Consistency (time)
Consensus (people)
95
Fundamental attribution error:
Under-estimating the importanceof external factors and over-estimating internal factors when making
attributions about the behavior of others
96
Self-serving bias
Taking credit for successful work and denying
responsibility for poor work
97
Motivation definition
The forces within a person that affect the direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary behavior. Exerting particular effort level (intensity), for a certain amount of time (persistence), toward a particular goal (direction).
98
Motivation components
Direction
Persistence
Intensity
99
Employee drivers
primary needs or innate motives. Inherent needs. Generate emotions, which put people in a state of readiness to act on their
environment. Corrects deficiencies or maintain an
internal equilibrium by producing emotions to energize individuals
100
Needs
motivational forces of emotions channeled toward
particular goals to correct deficiencies or imbalances. eeds are essentially the emotional
experience channeled toward goals believed to address the source of
emotion.
101
Motivational process
1. Need deficiency
2. Search for satisfaction
3. Goal directed behaviour
4. Performance evaluation
5. Rewards/punishment
6. Reassessment of need deficiency
102
Content theories- internal factors
focus on Factors within the person, The needs that motivate people;
- Maslow’s need hierarchy
- Alderfer’s ERG theory
- Herzberg’s two-factor theory
- McClelland’s learned needs theory
103
Maslows
Five level need hirarchy
1. Self actualization
2. Self esteem
3. Belongigness
4. Safety
5. physiological
104
Alderfer’s ERG theory
Threelevel hirarchy
EXCISTENCE = physiological and safety
RELATEDNESS = belongingness, social, love
GROWTH = esteem and self-actualization
105
Herzberg’s two-factor theory
Hygiene factors- DISSATISFIERS-satisfier
Intrinsic conditions- satisfier MOTIVATORS
106
McClelland’s learned needs theory
three learned needs acquired from the culture;
- Need for ACHIVEMENT:
accomplish reasonably challenging goals and desire unambiguous feedback and recognition for their success.
- Need for AFFILIATION:
people seek approval from others, conform to their wishes and expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontation.
- Need for POWER : Control their environment, including people and material resources, to benefit either themselves (personalized power) or others (socialized power)
107
Process theories-
Describe, explain, and analyze how behavior is Energized, Directed, Sustained and Stopped. needs and incentives that cause behavior:
- Vrooms expectancy
- Adams Equity theory
- Locke goal setting theory
108
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
A motivation theory based on the idea that work effort is directed toward
behaviors that people believe will lead to desired outcomes.
effort = successful performance + desired rewards and outcomes
109
Instrumentality
The perception that first-level outcomes (performance) are tied to second-level
outcomes (rewards or punishment)
110
Valence
An individual’s preferences for outcomes
111
Expectancy
Belief that a particular behavior will be followed by a particular outcome
112
Equity theory
A theory explaining how people develop perceptions of fairness in the distribution and exchange of resources. Equity exists when one perceives that the ratio of their inputs (efforts) to their outcomes (rewards) equals the ratios of other employees
113
Equity theory process
1. P with ceratin In gets Out
2. compares to other
3. regards others in and out
4. percives
- equity/inequity
114
Change Procedures to Restore Equity
- Changing inputs
- Changing outcomes
- Changing attitudes
- Changing the reference person
- Changing the inputs or outcomes of the reference person
- Leaving the field
115
Org justice
The degree to which individuals feel fairly treated at the workplace;
- DISTRIBUTIVE- outcome
- PROCEDURAL- process
-INTERACTIONAL- treated fairly
-INTERPERSONAL- treated well by authoreties
- INFORMATIONAL- given info
116
Goal setting
The process of motivating employees and clarifying their role perceptions by
establishing performance objectives. A goal is a result that a person or group is trying to accomplish through
behavior and actions
Goal...;
- SPECIFICITY- quantitative precision (clarity)
- DIFFICULTY- level of performance
that is sought.
- INTENSITY- how to reach goal
- COMMITMENT- amount of effort
117
Exchange theory
Organizational members engage in reasonably predictable give-and-take relationships.
Depends on;
- emplyee and org mutual expectation match. psycological contract.
- nature of task
118
Stress is
An adaptive response to a situation that is perceived as challenging or threatening to a person’s well-being.
An adaptive response moderated by individual differences
A consequence of any action, event, or situation that places
special demands on a person
119
To cause stress, something must be seen as
Threat
Challange
Harm
120
Key factor to determine if situation likely to cause stress
- Importance
- Uncertainty
- Duration
121
Stressor
Any environmental conditions that place a physical or
emotional demand on a person
A potentially harmful or threatening external event or situation
122
individual stressors
-Role ambiguity
- Responsibility for people
- Pace of change
- Harassment
- Role overload
- Role Conflict
123
Cognitive appraisal
Perceptual process of evaluating a situation;
Primary- is it good bad or meaningless?
Secondary- can i do something to reduce stress?
124
Coping with stress focuses
Problem- solve the cause
Emotional- spare my emotions
125
Stress prevention
Focuses on controlling or eliminating stressors- max person environment fit
126
types of org crimes
occupational- benefit me without support of org
Organisational- with support of org
127
Factors in Organizational Misbehavior
- Antecedents
- Mediators
- Outcones
- Costs
128
Aggression and Violence
The effort of an individual to bring harm to others at an organization,
- Physical or Verbal
- Active or Passive (to them)
- Direct or Indirect (behind back/second hand)
129
Bullying
Repeated actions directed toward another worker…
- unwanted
- deliberately or unconsciously
- humiliation and distress
- unpleasant work setting
130
Incivility
Acting rudely, discourteously, or in a demeaning manner toward others. Not violence or harassment; lack of respect for others
131
Fraud
Intentionally deceiving or misrepresenting to get another to give up
something of value
132
Cyber slacking
Using the Internet for personal reasons is “virtual goldbricking” (doing less than u could but make it look good)
133
E-Mail Privacy
E-mail does not have the same protection as telephone calls
and written documents
134
Power is
the ability to exercise influence
135
Influence is
the ability to bring about change
136
Change
alteration of aspects of the person’s psychological field
137
Social power
The ability to GET THINGS DONE with human, informational, and material resources. NOT OVER SOMEONE ELSE
138
Personalised vs Socialized power
for personal gain vs motivating and accomplish group goals
139
Five sources of power
Position
1. Reward
2. Coercive
3. Legitimate
Personal
4. Expert
5. Referent
140
Outcomes of influence attempts
1. Commitment
2. Compliance
3. Resistance
141
Principles of influence
Likeing- if they like u u get influence
Reciprocity- give back what u got
Social proof- role model and peerpressure
142
Soft influence tactics
- Rational persuasion: logic arguments
- Insperation: appeal to values and beliefs
- Consultation: asking for participation
- Ingratiation: put them in good mood or make them like u (mom)
- Personal appeal: use friendship and loyalty
143
Hard influence tactics
- Exchange: give benefits
- Coalition building: leverage "suport eachother"
- Pressure: demand threat etc
- Legitimate: Im your boss
144
Empowerment
sharing varying degrees of power with lower-level employees to tap their
full potential
145
Leadership
Influencing, motivating, and enabling others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organizations of which they are members.
146
5 components of leadership
1. LEADER takes charge and guides
2. FOLLOWERS perform under guidance
3. CONTEXT is the situation surrounding the leader-follower relationship
4. PROCESS- reflects what is embedded in the act of leadership
5. OUTCOME includes anything arising from interplay between leader, follower and context.
147
Approaches to Studying Leadership:
- Trait - "great man" and OCEAN
- Behavioral -
- Contingency
- Transformational
148
Behavioural approach
CONSIDERATION- employee-centered behaviors
Initiating STRUCTURE-
job-centered behaviors.
149
Contingency approach
Effective traits and behaviours depend on the situation. Leadership doesn't change, if mismatch change situation.
Tratis+ behaviour+ situational factors
150
Transformational approach
Transforms employees to pursue organizational
goals over self-interest
Changing the goals, values,
needs, beliefs, and aspirations of employees. This is done by appealing to followers' values and personal identity
151
Transactional leadership
Focuses on clarifying employees’ roles and providing rewards contingent on performance. Appeals to what followers want (rewards).
Use contingent rewards to motivate employees, and leaders exert corrective
action only when subordinates fail to attain performance goals
152
The key to org sucess is
human resources
153
Key to achieve effectiveness is
the behaviour of employees. Organizations can achieve effectiveness only when employees share values.
154
The "effect" is
the behavior or reaction of a person who is being observed. Individuals who are being observed are likely to react in a nonroutine way because they are being watched or are a part of an experiment.
155
New psychological agreement or contract.
mutual expectation from employee and employer. Phycological contract
156
Systems theory is used to integrate organizational effectiveness and time. Two main conclusions of systems theory are:
(1) effectiveness criteria (e.g., productivity, quality, adaptiveness) must reflect the entire input-process–output cycle
(2) effectiveness criteria must reflect the interrelationships between the organization and its outside environment. The organization is simply an element or part of a larger system, the environment.
157
Organizational culture is
a pattern of assumptions and values that are invented, discovered, or developed to cope with organizational life
158
Socialization is
the process by which organizations bring new employees into the culture.
159
Major individual variables that influence work behavior include
- diversity
- abilities and skills
- attitudes
- personality
- emotions.
160
An attitude is a
learned predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably to people, objects, and situations with which it is related
161
An attitude consists out of
Cognitive component (beliefs)
Affect component (feelings)
Behavioural component
162
Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to
the ability to manage one’s own and others’ emotions to achieve organizational goals.
1. self- awareness
2. social awareness
3. self-management
4. relationship management.
163
Perception is a process that involves
selection, organization, and interpretation of environmental factors
164
Once stimuli are selected they are categorized into groups according to a number of laws:
nearness
similarity
closure
simplicity
figure and ground
165
Attribution theory attempts to explain
the relationship between perception and behavior by investigating how people attribute events to causes.
166
Motivation is made up of at least three distinct components:
- Direction- what
- intensity- how much
- Persistance- how long
167
Maslows hierarchy
(1) physiological
(2) safety and security
(3) belongingness, social, and love,
(4) esteem,
(5) self-actualization.
168
Alderfer´s ERG
Existence
Relatedness
Growth
169
Herzberg’s research suggests that there are two important sets of factors
Motivators- intrinsic conditions and include achievement, recognition, and responsibility.
Hygiene factors- salary, working conditions, and job security
170
McClelland has developed a descriptive set of factors that reflect a high need for achievement. These are:
(1) the person likes to take responsibility for solving problems
(2) the person tends to set moderate achievement goals and is inclined to take calculated risks
(3) the person desires feedback on performance.
171
MEM
management of employee misbehavior (
172
Stress is
an adaptive response moderated by individual differences, that is, a con- sequence of any action, situation, or event that places special demands on a person.
173
Stressors are actions, situations, or events that place special demands on a person. Three important categories of stressors are:
(1) work environment (e.g., chemicals, radiation, temperature)
(2) individual stressors (e.g., role conflict, work overload, change)
(3) group and organizational stressors (e.g., politics, culture, interper- sonal relationships, downsizing)
174
Power is the capability
one party has to affect the actions of another party
175
Influence is a transaction
in which one party induces another party to behave in a certain way.
176
French and Raven introduced the notion of five interpersonal power bases:
legitimate (position based)
reward, coercive (punishment based)
expert, and referent (charismatic).
177
Organizational structure creates power by specifying certain individuals to perform certain tasks. Three important forms of structural power include
(1) access to re- sources
(2) ability to affect decision-making processes
(3) having access to relevant and important information.
178
Empowerment refers to a process whereby
conditions that contribute to powerlessness are identified and removed.
179
Two important factors in empowerment are
1. helping organizational members feel confident about their ability to perform well
2. increasing the linkages between effort and performance
180
A strategic contingency is an event or activity that
is extremely important for accomplishing
181
Leadership is the process of
influencing others to facilitate the attainment of organizationally relevant goals.
182
A trait approach to leadership focuses on
identifying the intellectual, emotional, physical, or other personal traits of effective leaders.
183
Behavior approaches to leadership focus on
behavior of the leader. Job-centered and employee-centered leadership and initiating structure and consideration are examples of what has been identified as important leader behavior.
184
Situational approaches emphasise
the importance of considering the nature of the environment, or situation, in which leadership is exercised.
185
Leadership substitutes are factors that
render leadership unnecessary or even impossible. Leadership substitutes negate the leader’s ability to either increase or decrease follower satisfaction or performance. Substitutes can include;
- cohesive work groups
- intrinsically satisfying tasks
- high levels of subordinate ability, experi- ence, and knowledge.
186
Two important organizational design models are
termed mechanistic and organic
187
Mechanistic design is characterized by
highly specialized jobs, homogeneous departments, narrow spans of control, and relatively centralized authority.
188
Organic designs are characterized by
relatively despecialized jobs, heterogeneous departments, wide spans of control, and decentralized authority.
189
Four key managerial decisions determine organizational structures
1. devision of labour
2. delegating authority- structure
3. departmentalisation
4. span of control
190
There are several forms, or bases, of departmentalization ex
Functional
Geographic
Product
Customer
191
Matrix maxemizes benefits from
functional+ product
192
Three important dimensions of structure are
formalization
centralization
complexity
