schema theory Flashcards
(38 cards)
1
Q
schema theory
A
A theory attempting to explain how our minds organise information, knowledge, and memories.
2
Q
schema
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A cluster of related pieces of information, knowledge, or memory that are stored in our mind. (networks of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations about particular aspects of the world)
3
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schema theory claims
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- Our knowledge of the world is organised and categorised.
(this can influence our cognition and behaviour)
4
Q
process involved in developing schemas
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Assimilation, accommodation
5
Q
assimilation
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Strategy for understanding new experiences by comparing them to pre-existing schemas.
(as new information is learned, it’s added to the collection of experience)
6
Q
accommodation
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When we re-structure/modify our existing schema(s) so that new information can fit it better.
7
Q
3 key types of schemas
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Scripts, self-schemas, social schemas.
8
Q
scripts
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Schemas which provide information (in other words expectations) about the sequence of events that occur in a more-or-less unchanging order in particular contexts. (how you act)
9
Q
self-schemas
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Organise informations we have about ourselves.
10
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social schemas
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(eg. stereotypes) represent information about groups of people.
11
Q
functions of schemas
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- Helps us comprehend new information, improve information through processing and comprehension.
- Helps us make sense of complex world of information.
- Includes generalisation about situations, people, and places. (generalisation helps saving cognitive memory)
12
Q
characteristics of schemas
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- Long lasting.
- Difficult to change. (not impossible)
13
Q
schema theory in explaining memory
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It is now believed schema processing can affect memory in all following stages: encoding, storage, and retrieval.
14
Q
in encoding
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Transforming sensory information into memory.
15
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in storage
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Creating a biological trace of encoded information in memory, which is either consolidated or lost.
16
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retrieval
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Using stored information for thinking, problem-solving, and decision making.
17
Q
evaluation of schema theory
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+Testable, +empirical evidence, +applications, -construct validity, +unbiased, +predictive validity
18
Q
+testable
A
- Through experimental research: Bartlett demonstrated memory reconstruction through ‘War of Ghosts’, showing how culture schemas affect recall.
- Loftus & Palmer
- Numerous studies throughout cognitive psychology continue to test schema influence on memory and perception.
19
Q
+empirical evidence
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- Neuroscientific evidence suggests that schemas are linked to pattern recognition and categorised, supporting the theory.
- fMRI studies have shown that when people process familiar vs unfamiliar information, different neural pathways are activated, indicating schema involvement.
20
Q
+applications
A
- Has wide ranging application across multiple fields:
- Memory research} explains memory distortions, influencing areas such as eyewitness testimonies. (eg. Lofts & Palmer)
- Abnormal psychology} used in cognitive therapy to modify maladaptive schemas in depression and anxiety. (eg. Beck’s cognitive model)
- Social psychology} helps explain stereotyping and prejudice, where people fit individuals into pre-existing socials schemas.
- Health psychology} Applied in public health campaigns, helping to change unhealthy behaviours by restructuring health-relating schemas.
21
Q
-construct validity
A
- Cohen (1993) criticised schema theory for being too vague and unobservable.
- Schemas cannot be directly measured -> researchers can infer their effects, but they lack a clear definition or biological marker.
- While experiments show schema-consistent recall, it’s hard to pinpoint exactly how schemas are stored or activated in the brain.
22
Q
+unbiased
A
- Not culturally biased. (has been tested across different populations and culture)
(early research was Western-dominated, but more recent studies -eg. cross-cultural research on memory and perception- support the universality of schemas)
23
Q
+predictive validity
A
- Schema theory can predict general trends in memory recall, such as omission of irrelevant details and distortion based on expectations.
Limitations: - However, it cannot predict exactly what an individual will recall, making it less precise than some cognitive models.
- While schemas influence perception and memory, individual differences (eg. personal experience, motivation, attention etc.) also play a role.
24
Q
key studies
A
Bartlett and Loftus & Palmer
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Bartlett aim
To investigate how memory is affected by cultural schemas when recalling a culturally unfamiliar story.
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Bartlett procedure
Ppts: 20 British males at university, unfamiliar with native American culture.
- Story used: 'The War of Ghosts'. (Native American Legend)
- Studied 2 situations
1. Ppt telling other ppts a story. (serial reproduction)
2. Ppts repeating the story to themselves and writing down what they can remember after different time intervals.
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Bartlett results
Memory distortion occurred in both groups as ppts tried to recall the story.
- Three key distorted patterns:
1. Assimilation} Story was altered to fit into British cultural experiences. (unfamiliar details were replaced with familiar ones)
2. Levelling} Story became shorter over time as details deemed unimportant were omitted.
3. Sharpening} Ppts changed order of events, added new details, and made the story more coherent + familiar.
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Bartlett conclusion
- Study supports schema theory by showing how pre-existing knowledge structures (schemas) influence the processing + recall of information.
(study demonstrated how ppts' recall of a Native American story was influences by their cultural schemas, resulting in the distortion and reconstruction of information to fit with their existing schemas. (assimilation)
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Bartlett advantages
+Demonstrates ecological validity as memory distortion occurs in real-world scenarios (eg. eye-witnesses) -> not using lists: task validity.
+Somewhat reliable because of other research conducted. (has been replicated)
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Bartlett limitations
- Lacks control: no standardised time intervals for recall, leading to inconsistencies.
- Lack of control group: did not compare recall performance with a group given culturally familiar story, so it is unclear how much of the distortion was due to schemas vs general forgetting.
- Demand characteristics: ppts may have guessed the aim of the study and unconsciously altered their recall based on expectations of what should happen in memory research.
- Researcher bias: Bartlett subjectively interpreted ppts' memory distortions to support his schema theory without using objective measures.
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Loftus & Palmer aim
To investigate whether the use of leading questions would affect the estimation of speed.
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Loftus & Palmer procedure
45 student ppts shown 7 short films of car accidents.
- They were the asked to estimate the speed of the cars involved in the accident.
- Conditions: different ppts asked question- "About how fast were the cars going when they hit/collided/bumped/smashed/contacted each other?"
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Loftus & Palmer results
Verbs Mean speed estimate (mph)
- smashed - 40.8
- collided - 39.3
- bumped - 38.1
- hit - 34.0
- collide - 31.8
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Loftus & Palmer conclusion
(in terms of schema interpretation)
- The verb "smashed" activated more violent crash schema, leading to higher speed estimates.
- Loftus & Palmer proposed two estimates:
1. Response bias: verb influenced type of answer given.
2. Memory distortion: verb altered ppt's memory trace itself, aligning it with more sever event schema. (supporting Bartlett's reconstructive memory theory)
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Loftus & Palmer advantages
+High internal validity: controlled lab setting minimised confounding variables, allowing clear cause-and-effect relationship between wording of questions and memory distortion.
+Replicable: standardised procedure (eg. same video, same questions) makes the study easy to replicate and test for reliability.
+Supports theory: provides empirical support for Bartlett's theory of reconstructive memory and schema influence.
36
Loftus & Palmer limitations
-Low ecological validity: watching car crash videos in a lad does not reflect the emotional and stressful nature of real-life accidents.
-Many students may have lacked real driving experience, making speed estimation less accurate or meaningful.
-Demand characteristics: ppts may have guessed the purpose of the study and altered their responses accordingly.
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summary of Loftus & Palmer study 2
(in terms of schema interpretation)
In the second experiment, Loftus & Palmer showed 150 ppts a short film. of a car accident and then asked one group how fast the cars going when they "smashed", another when they "hit" , and left a 3rd group unasked about speed. A week later, all were asked if they had seen broken glass (there was none). Those who heard "smashed" were significantly more likely to falsely recall seeing broken glass, suggesting that the verb had activated a more dramatic crash schema, which shaped their memory. This supported the idea that schemas can lead to memory distortion, especially when reconstructing events after the fact.
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