Scientific processes Flashcards
(94 cards)
1
Q
Define aim
A
An aim is a precise statement of why a study is taking place
2
Q
What should an aim include
A
What is being studied
What the study is trying to achieve
3
Q
Where do aims come from?
A
Personal interests of the researcher
Other researchers theories / studies
Seek a solution to a practical problem
4
Q
Define hypothesis
A
A statement of prediction that is directly testable
5
Q
Define directional / one-tailed hypothesis
A
Predicts the direction in which change is expected to occur
Words eg faster/slower, bigger/smaller, more/less
6
Q
Define non-directional / two-tailed hypothesis
A
Simply predicts the change and does not specify the direction
Words eg change, effect, difference
7
Q
Define null hypothesis
A
Predicts there will be no change and that any change is due to chance
8
Q
What must be identified in the hypothesis
A
Independent variables
Dependent variable
^operationalised
9
Q
Define independent variable
A
The thing that changes
10
Q
Define dependent variable
A
The thing that is measured
11
Q
Define operationalised
A
Stated in a measurable form
12
Q
Define extraneous variable
A
EVs do not vary systematically with the IV
Any variable other than the IV which may HAVE AN EFFECT on the DV
Therefore may affect validity of research findings
13
Q
Can extraneous variables be controlled?
A
Yes
14
Q
Define confounding variable
A
CVs vary systematically with the IV
Any variables other than the IV which may HAVE EFFECTED the DV
So we cannot know the true cause of the changes to the DV
15
Q
Can confounding variables be controlled?
A
No
16
Q
Name the two types of extraneous variables
A
Participant variables
Situational variables
17
Q
Define participant variables
A
Individual differences between RPs that can affect the results
18
Q
Give examples of participant variables
A
Age Gender Intelligence Social class Fitness
19
Q
How can the researcher reduce the effects of participant variables
A
Careful selection of RPs as researcher can do little to control them
Controlled across different experimental conditions
20
Q
Define demand characteristics
A
Cues which convey to the RP the aim of the experiment
21
Q
Give examples of demand characteristics
A
Instructions given to RP What RP has heard from others The way RP was approached initially Setting of experiment Whether the experimenter is formal or relaxed
22
Q
What might demand characteristics lead to?
A
Participant reactivity
23
Q
Define participant reactivity
A
The way RPs change their behaviour due to cues given as demand characteristics
24
Q
Give examples of participant reactivity
A
Please you effect - try to help researcher
Screw you effect - try to ruin results
25
How can demand characteristics / participant reactivity be controlled?
Single blind trial - RP does not know which condition they are in, this prevents them seeking clues about the aim
27
Define situational variables
Outside influences on the experiment
28
How can situational variables be controlled?
Standardisation
Randomisation
Counterbalancing
29
Define standardisation
Ensuring all RPs are tested under the same conditions
| Identical.. instructions, procedures followed, scoring techniques, environment
30
Define randomisation
Order of tasks / presentation of data etc is decided on the toss of a coin / another random method of selection to control for order effects
31
Define order effects
Order effects occur when an RP undertakes a task more than once
32
Give examples of order effects
Practise
Fatigue
Boredom
33
Define counterbalancing
Used to control order effects when using the repeated measures design.
Changes order of tasks for each RP / ABBA technique
34
Define investigator effect
If the researcher changes in any way while in different conditions it could affect the results
35
Give examples of investigator effects
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Change in...
Mood
Appearance
Instructions they give
Leading questions
```
36
How to control investigator effects / order effects
Double blind trial - neither RP or researcher knows which condition they are in -> can't communicate cues about aims
37
Name the types of experimental design
Independent measures design
Repeated measures design
Matched pairs design
38
Define independent measures design
Uses different participants in each condition.
| Each RP only takes part in one condition
39
What are the strengths of using independent measures design?
No order effects
Demand characteristics are less likely to affect results, as RPs only take part in one condition so are less likely to guess the aim
40
What are the limitations of using independent measures design?
Individual differences occur due to participant variables -> random allocation reduces this
More RPs will be needed -> less economical than repeated measures design
41
Define repeated measures design
Uses the same participants in each condition.
| Each RP takes part in both conditions
42
What are the strengths of using repeated measures design?
No participant variables -> no individual differences
| Fewer RPs needed than independent measures design -> important when RPs are in short supply
43
What are the limitations of repeated measures design?
Results can be affected by order effects -> reduces validity of findings -> counterbalancing can reduce this
Demand characteristics may affect validity of results
44
Define matched pairs design
Uses different but similar participants in each condition e.g. Twins
Matching based on important characteristics that might affect performance e.g. Driving ability, alcohol tolerance
45
What are the strengths of using matched pairs design ?
No order effects
Individual differences are reduced
Demand characteristics are reduced
46
What are the limitations of using matched pairs design?
Need lots of RPs, some are wasted if they can't be matched up
Difficult to march RPs exactly -> even with identical twins there are important differences which could affect DV
47
Give examples of situational variables
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Time of day
Weather
Noise
Type of room
Design of experiment as RPs may only experience one condition
```
48
Define sampling
The process of selecting RPs to study from the target population
49
Define target population
A specified section of humankind
50
Why must the sample group be representative of the target population ?
So that the results can be generalised to the whole target population
51
How large should a sample group be?
Big enough for it to represent the variety of individuals in the target population
Not so big as to make the study uneconomical in terms of time and resources
52
What is random sampling?
All members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected.
Does not guarantee a representative sample , but chances of bias are unlikely
E.g. Pull names out of a hat
53
Give the strengths of using a random sampling technique
Best chance of getting an unbiased sample as researcher has no influence over who is chosen
54
Give the limitations of using a random sampling technique
Representation is not guaranteed.
| Still possible that a bias sample may be produced -> limits generalisability
55
What is systematic sampling?
RPs are selected from a list at fixed intervals
E.g. Every fifth person
Interval number can be determined randomly -> reduce bias
56
Give the strengths of using a systematic sampling technique
If list order is randomised, offers unbiased chance of gaining representative sample
It's an objective method
57
Give the limitations of using a systematic sampling technique
Time and effort required
| Requires complete list of population
58
What is stratified sampling?
Target population is divided into sub-sets e.g. Age, gender, class...
Random sample is taken from these sub sets (strata)
This ensures representative sample is taken
59
Give the strengths of using a stratified sampling technique
May be more representative -> effort is made to identify important characteristics of target population
More generalisable than other methods
60
Give the limitations of using a stratified sampling technique
Time consuming to sort categories + calculate
| If stratification isn't perfect, a complete representation isn't always possible
61
What is opportunity sampling ?
Aka convenience sampling
Involves selecting anyone who is available from the target population .
Effort may be made to reduce bias by e.g. picking equal numbers of males / females
62
Give the strengths of using an opportunity sampling technique
Quick + convenient -> most economical
| Most commonly used method
63
Give the limitations of using an opportunity sampling method
Unrepresentative of target population -> will be selected from very specific area eg a street
Can be biased on the part of researcher who may choose a RPs most likely to be helpful
64
What is volunteer sampling?
Participants volunteer in response to an advertisement e.g. Newspaper / notice board
65
Give the strengths of using a volunteer sampling method
Convenient
Ethical
Choice isn't biased on the part of researcher
66
Give the limitations of using a volunteer sampling technique
Biased
Unrepresentative
RPs may share certain traits e.g. Keen, curious, confident -> participant variables
Difficult to generalise results
67
Define ethics
Standards of conduct that distinguish between right and wrong, good and bad, justices and injustice
68
Who created the ethical guidelines that all practicing psychologists must follow and why did they create them?
British Psychological Society (BPS)
| To protect participants and the reputation of psychology
69
What is an ethical issue?
Any situation that repeatedly gives rise to an ethical dilemma
70
Name all the issues raised in the BPS ethical guidelines
```
Informed consent
Deception
Protection from harm
Confidentiality
Withdrawal
Diebriefing
```
71
What is informed consent?
When a RP agrees to take part in a study, based on information made available to them about the research
72
When might not gaining informed consent ethically acceptable?
So long as what happens to the participants could just as likely happen to them in everyday life
E.g. Observation in natural setting
73
What is the age restriction for giving consent to take part in a study?
16
| If the RP is under 16, consent should be given by their parents
74
What is an issue with getting informed consent?
The researcher may 'give the game away' -> influence RP behaviour
Therefore withholding information is sometimes justifiable
75
What is deception?
Information is withheld from RPs
| They are misled about the purpose of the study and what will happen during it
76
What does the BPS guidelines say about deception?
"Intentional deception should be avoided whenever possible"
It is particularly unacceptable if it leads to "discomfort, anger or objections from the participants when the deception is revealed afterwards"
77
What must the researcher have done in order for deception to be accepted as unavoidable?
Make sure all alternative procedures which avoid deception are unavailable
Consult with colleagues about how RPs might be affected by the deception
Reveal the deception immediately after the research is complete
78
What is protection from harm?
"Investigators have a primary responsibility to protect participants from physical and mental harm during the investigation"
Risks must be no greater than risks in everyday life
Investigator has responsibility to detect and remove any consequences of the research
79
What is confidentiality?
RPs must be told that there is no need to answer any personal questions and if they do, their answers will be treated in confidence (anonymous)
80
What is right to withdraw?
Participants have a right to withdraw from an investigation at any time, during or after the research has taken place.
Including if they're being paid .
No attempt should be made to dissuade them
81
What is debriefing?
```
Disclosing after the experiment...
Aims of study
How RP has contributed
Any deception is explained + justified
Attempts to undo any negative affects
```
82
How is the issue of deception dealt with?
Debriefing
| Retrospective informed consent
83
How is the issue of not getting informed consent dealt with?
Presumptive consent
Prior general consent
Children get consent from parents / those in loco parents e.g. Head teacher
84
Define Retrospective consent
The true nature of the study is revealed after it has taken place.
The participants then decide whether they want to withdraw their results
85
Define presumptive consent
A large random sample of the population is told all about the study (inc deception) and asked whether they would agree to it
If they agree, we assume that everyone would agree
86
Define prior general consent
Before the study , RPs are asked whether they would object to any deception should it be necessary
87
How is not protecting participants from harm dealt with?
Right to withdraw
Confidentiality
Debriefing
Researcher is responsible for stopping the study
88
How is the issue of confidentiality dealt with?
Keeping everything in private
Number RPs / use their initials
Only researcher has access to data
Names are usually irrelevant, even researcher doesn't need to know it
89
What are the possible consequences of breaking the issue of deception?
Prevents informed consent
| Makes participants distrustful of the researcher and any future research they may take part in
90
What are the possible consequences of breaking the issue of informed consent?
Makes participants distrustful in the future
91
What are the consequences of breaking the issue of protecting participants from harm?
May impact on their future lives
| Stop them wanting to take part in future research
92
What are the possible consequences of breaking the issue of confidentiality?
Participants won't trust researchers in the future
Feelings may be hurt
Could affect RPs lives psychologically
93
What are the reasons 'for' and 'against' breaking ethical guidelines?
For - value of research may be ground breaking
| Against - damaging effect on participants / reputation of psychology
94
What is a pilot study?
A small scale study carried out before the main research
95
Why do researchers do pilot studies?
Allow researcher to identify any potential issues (EVs), and to modify the design / procedure -> save time and money
Test materials used
Test RPs understand standardised instructions
Test timings are suitable
Test if questions are leading
Test if behaviour categories are appropriate
