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A Level Psychology > Scientific processes > Flashcards

Scientific processes Flashcards

1
Q

Define aim

A

An aim is a precise statement of why a study is taking place

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2
Q

What should an aim include

A

What is being studied

What the study is trying to achieve

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3
Q

Where do aims come from?

A

Personal interests of the researcher
Other researchers theories / studies
Seek a solution to a practical problem

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4
Q

Define hypothesis

A

A statement of prediction that is directly testable

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5
Q

Define directional / one-tailed hypothesis

A

Predicts the direction in which change is expected to occur

Words eg faster/slower, bigger/smaller, more/less

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6
Q

Define non-directional / two-tailed hypothesis

A

Simply predicts the change and does not specify the direction
Words eg change, effect, difference

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7
Q

Define null hypothesis

A

Predicts there will be no change and that any change is due to chance

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8
Q

What must be identified in the hypothesis

A

Independent variables
Dependent variable
^operationalised

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9
Q

Define independent variable

A

The thing that changes

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10
Q

Define dependent variable

A

The thing that is measured

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11
Q

Define operationalised

A

Stated in a measurable form

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12
Q

Define extraneous variable

A

EVs do not vary systematically with the IV
Any variable other than the IV which may HAVE AN EFFECT on the DV
Therefore may affect validity of research findings

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13
Q

Can extraneous variables be controlled?

A

Yes

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14
Q

Define confounding variable

A

CVs vary systematically with the IV
Any variables other than the IV which may HAVE EFFECTED the DV
So we cannot know the true cause of the changes to the DV

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15
Q

Can confounding variables be controlled?

A

No

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16
Q

Name the two types of extraneous variables

A

Participant variables

Situational variables

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17
Q

Define participant variables

A

Individual differences between RPs that can affect the results

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18
Q

Give examples of participant variables

A 
Age
Gender
Intelligence
Social class
Fitness
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19
Q

How can the researcher reduce the effects of participant variables

A

Careful selection of RPs as researcher can do little to control them
Controlled across different experimental conditions

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20
Q

Define demand characteristics

A

Cues which convey to the RP the aim of the experiment

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21
Q

Give examples of demand characteristics

A 
Instructions given to RP
What RP has heard from others
The way RP was approached initially
Setting of experiment
Whether the experimenter is formal or relaxed
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22
Q

What might demand characteristics lead to?

A

Participant reactivity

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23
Q

Define participant reactivity

A

The way RPs change their behaviour due to cues given as demand characteristics

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24
Q

Give examples of participant reactivity

A

Please you effect - try to help researcher

Screw you effect - try to ruin results

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25
Q

How can demand characteristics / participant reactivity be controlled?

A

Single blind trial - RP does not know which condition they are in, this prevents them seeking clues about the aim

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27
Q

Define situational variables

A

Outside influences on the experiment

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28
Q

How can situational variables be controlled?

A

Standardisation
Randomisation
Counterbalancing

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29
Q

Define standardisation

A

Ensuring all RPs are tested under the same conditions

Identical.. instructions, procedures followed, scoring techniques, environment

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30
Q

Define randomisation

A

Order of tasks / presentation of data etc is decided on the toss of a coin / another random method of selection to control for order effects

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31
Q

Define order effects

A

Order effects occur when an RP undertakes a task more than once

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32
Q

Give examples of order effects

A

Practise
Fatigue
Boredom

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33
Q

Define counterbalancing

A

Used to control order effects when using the repeated measures design.
Changes order of tasks for each RP / ABBA technique

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34
Q

Define investigator effect

A

If the researcher changes in any way while in different conditions it could affect the results

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35
Q

Give examples of investigator effects

A 
Change in...
Mood
Appearance
Instructions they give
Leading questions
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36
Q

How to control investigator effects / order effects

A

Double blind trial - neither RP or researcher knows which condition they are in -> can’t communicate cues about aims

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37
Q

Name the types of experimental design

A

Independent measures design
Repeated measures design
Matched pairs design

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38
Q

Define independent measures design

A

Uses different participants in each condition.

Each RP only takes part in one condition

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39
Q

What are the strengths of using independent measures design?

A

No order effects
Demand characteristics are less likely to affect results, as RPs only take part in one condition so are less likely to guess the aim

40
Q

What are the limitations of using independent measures design?

A

Individual differences occur due to participant variables -> random allocation reduces this
More RPs will be needed -> less economical than repeated measures design

41
Q

Define repeated measures design

A

Uses the same participants in each condition.

Each RP takes part in both conditions

42
Q

What are the strengths of using repeated measures design?

A

No participant variables -> no individual differences

Fewer RPs needed than independent measures design -> important when RPs are in short supply

43
Q

What are the limitations of repeated measures design?

A

Results can be affected by order effects -> reduces validity of findings -> counterbalancing can reduce this
Demand characteristics may affect validity of results

44
Q

Define matched pairs design

A

Uses different but similar participants in each condition e.g. Twins
Matching based on important characteristics that might affect performance e.g. Driving ability, alcohol tolerance

45
Q

What are the strengths of using matched pairs design ?

A

No order effects
Individual differences are reduced
Demand characteristics are reduced

46
Q

What are the limitations of using matched pairs design?

A

Need lots of RPs, some are wasted if they can’t be matched up
Difficult to march RPs exactly -> even with identical twins there are important differences which could affect DV

47
Q

Give examples of situational variables

A 
Time of day
Weather
Noise
Type of room
Design of experiment as RPs may only experience one condition
48
Q

Define sampling

A

The process of selecting RPs to study from the target population

49
Q

Define target population

A

A specified section of humankind

50
Q

Why must the sample group be representative of the target population ?

A

So that the results can be generalised to the whole target population

51
Q

How large should a sample group be?

A

Big enough for it to represent the variety of individuals in the target population
Not so big as to make the study uneconomical in terms of time and resources

52
Q

What is random sampling?

A

All members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected.
Does not guarantee a representative sample , but chances of bias are unlikely
E.g. Pull names out of a hat

53
Q

Give the strengths of using a random sampling technique

A

Best chance of getting an unbiased sample as researcher has no influence over who is chosen

54
Q

Give the limitations of using a random sampling technique

A

Representation is not guaranteed.

Still possible that a bias sample may be produced -> limits generalisability

55
Q

What is systematic sampling?

A

RPs are selected from a list at fixed intervals
E.g. Every fifth person
Interval number can be determined randomly -> reduce bias

56
Q

Give the strengths of using a systematic sampling technique

A

If list order is randomised, offers unbiased chance of gaining representative sample
It’s an objective method

57
Q

Give the limitations of using a systematic sampling technique

A

Time and effort required

Requires complete list of population

58
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A

Target population is divided into sub-sets e.g. Age, gender, class…
Random sample is taken from these sub sets (strata)
This ensures representative sample is taken

59
Q

Give the strengths of using a stratified sampling technique

A

May be more representative -> effort is made to identify important characteristics of target population
More generalisable than other methods

60
Q

Give the limitations of using a stratified sampling technique

A

Time consuming to sort categories + calculate

If stratification isn’t perfect, a complete representation isn’t always possible

61
Q

What is opportunity sampling ?

A

Aka convenience sampling
Involves selecting anyone who is available from the target population .
Effort may be made to reduce bias by e.g. picking equal numbers of males / females

62
Q

Give the strengths of using an opportunity sampling technique

A

Quick + convenient -> most economical

Most commonly used method

63
Q

Give the limitations of using an opportunity sampling method

A

Unrepresentative of target population -> will be selected from very specific area eg a street
Can be biased on the part of researcher who may choose a RPs most likely to be helpful

64
Q

What is volunteer sampling?

A

Participants volunteer in response to an advertisement e.g. Newspaper / notice board

65
Q

Give the strengths of using a volunteer sampling method

A

Convenient
Ethical
Choice isn’t biased on the part of researcher

66
Q

Give the limitations of using a volunteer sampling technique

A

Biased
Unrepresentative
RPs may share certain traits e.g. Keen, curious, confident -> participant variables
Difficult to generalise results

67
Q

Define ethics

A

Standards of conduct that distinguish between right and wrong, good and bad, justices and injustice

68
Q

Who created the ethical guidelines that all practicing psychologists must follow and why did they create them?

A

British Psychological Society (BPS)

To protect participants and the reputation of psychology

69
Q

What is an ethical issue?

A

Any situation that repeatedly gives rise to an ethical dilemma

70
Q

Name all the issues raised in the BPS ethical guidelines

A 
Informed consent
Deception
Protection from harm
Confidentiality
Withdrawal
Diebriefing
71
Q

What is informed consent?

A

When a RP agrees to take part in a study, based on information made available to them about the research

72
Q

When might not gaining informed consent ethically acceptable?

A

So long as what happens to the participants could just as likely happen to them in everyday life
E.g. Observation in natural setting

73
Q

What is the age restriction for giving consent to take part in a study?

A

16

If the RP is under 16, consent should be given by their parents

74
Q

What is an issue with getting informed consent?

A

The researcher may ‘give the game away’ -> influence RP behaviour
Therefore withholding information is sometimes justifiable

75
Q

What is deception?

A

Information is withheld from RPs

They are misled about the purpose of the study and what will happen during it

76
Q

What does the BPS guidelines say about deception?

A

“Intentional deception should be avoided whenever possible”

It is particularly unacceptable if it leads to “discomfort, anger or objections from the participants when the deception is revealed afterwards”

77
Q

What must the researcher have done in order for deception to be accepted as unavoidable?

A

Make sure all alternative procedures which avoid deception are unavailable
Consult with colleagues about how RPs might be affected by the deception
Reveal the deception immediately after the research is complete

78
Q

What is protection from harm?

A

“Investigators have a primary responsibility to protect participants from physical and mental harm during the investigation”
Risks must be no greater than risks in everyday life
Investigator has responsibility to detect and remove any consequences of the research

79
Q

What is confidentiality?

A

RPs must be told that there is no need to answer any personal questions and if they do, their answers will be treated in confidence (anonymous)

80
Q

What is right to withdraw?

A

Participants have a right to withdraw from an investigation at any time, during or after the research has taken place.
Including if they’re being paid .
No attempt should be made to dissuade them

81
Q

What is debriefing?

A 
Disclosing after the experiment...
Aims of study
How RP has contributed
Any deception is explained + justified
Attempts to undo any negative affects
82
Q

How is the issue of deception dealt with?

A

Debriefing

Retrospective informed consent

83
Q

How is the issue of not getting informed consent dealt with?

A

Presumptive consent
Prior general consent
Children get consent from parents / those in loco parents e.g. Head teacher

84
Q

Define Retrospective consent

A

The true nature of the study is revealed after it has taken place.
The participants then decide whether they want to withdraw their results

85
Q

Define presumptive consent

A

A large random sample of the population is told all about the study (inc deception) and asked whether they would agree to it
If they agree, we assume that everyone would agree

86
Q

Define prior general consent

A

Before the study , RPs are asked whether they would object to any deception should it be necessary

87
Q

How is not protecting participants from harm dealt with?

A

Right to withdraw
Confidentiality
Debriefing
Researcher is responsible for stopping the study

88
Q

How is the issue of confidentiality dealt with?

A

Keeping everything in private
Number RPs / use their initials
Only researcher has access to data
Names are usually irrelevant, even researcher doesn’t need to know it

89
Q

What are the possible consequences of breaking the issue of deception?

A

Prevents informed consent

Makes participants distrustful of the researcher and any future research they may take part in

90
Q

What are the possible consequences of breaking the issue of informed consent?

A

Makes participants distrustful in the future

91
Q

What are the consequences of breaking the issue of protecting participants from harm?

A

May impact on their future lives

Stop them wanting to take part in future research

92
Q

What are the possible consequences of breaking the issue of confidentiality?

A

Participants won’t trust researchers in the future
Feelings may be hurt
Could affect RPs lives psychologically

93
Q

What are the reasons ‘for’ and ‘against’ breaking ethical guidelines?

A

For - value of research may be ground breaking

Against - damaging effect on participants / reputation of psychology

94
Q

What is a pilot study?

A

A small scale study carried out before the main research

95
Q

Why do researchers do pilot studies?

A

Allow researcher to identify any potential issues (EVs), and to modify the design / procedure -> save time and money
Test materials used
Test RPs understand standardised instructions
Test timings are suitable
Test if questions are leading
Test if behaviour categories are appropriate

A Level Psychology (6 decks)

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