Scott's Lectures Flashcards by Linzi MacDonald

What are in the kingdoms in evolution?

monera
Protista
fungi
plants
animals

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What are the characteristics of Monera?

Prokaryotic and mainly unicellular

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What are the characteristics of Protista?

Eukaryotic and unicellular
Autotrophic and heterotrophic forms
Most structurally and functionally diverse group of organisms

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What are the main components of plants?

Mainly multicellular eukaryotes

Photosynthetic

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What are the main component fungi?

Mainly multicellular eukaryotes

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What are the main components of animals?

Multicellular eukaryotes

Feed by ingestion and digestion

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How to fungi feed?

By absorption

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What is microbiology?

The study of micro organisms 
•algae
•fungi
•Protozoa
•bacteria 
•viruses 
•prions

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Why is microbiology relevant to forensic sciences, environmental science, biomedical sciences, food scientists etc

Micro organisms are used in biotechnology processes
Genetic engineering
Protein production

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What is a liposome?

Water+Phospholipids

Double layered inert membrane structures

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What are stromatolites?

Fossilised microbial mats found in schist-gneiss-migmatite rocks

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Bacteria structure

Prokaryotic
Mainly unicellular
Wide variety of feeding strategies

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What are the different bacteria shapes? (Morphology)

Coccoid (round)
Bacillus (rod) - E. coli
Vibroid (comma) - vibrio cholerae
Spirochaete (spiral) - treponema pallidum

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How do bacteria feed?

Most feed by absorption (eubacteria and archaebacteria)
Some by photosynthesis (Cyanobacteria)
Some are chemolithotrophic

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What is fermentation?

The anaerobic conversion of sugar to carbon dioxide and alcohol by yeast

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Components of Protozoa

Eukaryotic microorganisms 
Unicellular 
Feed by ingestion 
Main predictors of bacteria 
Responsible for some pathogenic diseases

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What are the 4 main phyla of Protozoa?

Phylum sarcomastigophora
Phylum Apicomplexa
Phylum Microspora
Phylum Ciliophora

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What is a virus?

Simple structures consisting essentially of a nucleic acid genome, protected by a shell of protein

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What is a virion?

Virus particle

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What is a capsid?

Protein shell which surrounds and protects the genome

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What is a nucleocapsid?

Genome plus capsid

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What is an envelope?

Lipid membrane which surrounds some viruses.

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What are peplomers?

Proteins found in the envelope of the virion

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How can viruses enter the body?

By: Inhalation, Ingestion, Sexual Intercourse or Inoculation

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What is the incubation period?

The time from exposure to an organism to the onset of clinical disease

What percent of human cancers are caused by viruses?

About 15%

What are prions composed of?

Protein only

What is genetics

The science of heredity and variation in living organisms

What is DNA made of?

* Phosphate * Sugar * Base

What are the 4 different bases in DNA?

* Adenine * Thymine * Guanine * Cytosine

Which 2 bases are purines?

Adenine and Guanine

Which 2 bases are Pyrimidines?

Thymine and Cytosine

Which enzyme is used in DNA replication?

DNA polymerase

What contains the information used to make proteins?

DNA

How long are human chromosomes?

2x10^8 nucleotides long

What is chromatin?

DNA + Proteins

What are histones?

Flat disc like proteins

How is DNA packaged?

DNA is wound around histones and eventually becomes a chromosome

What are the steps to making to making a protein?

DNA --> RNA --> Protein

What is RNA?

Ribonucleic Acid

Which base pairs with Adenine in mRNA?

Uracil

What enzyme is used in transcription?

RNA polymerase

What does mRNA do?

Ships information from nucleus to ribosomes

How many codon possibilities are there?

What does the anticodon do?

Specifies which amino acid the tRNA will carry

How many chromosomes do we have?

46 (23 pairs)

What are spindle fibres?

Microtubules + proteins

What do spindle fibres do?

Pull chromosomes to poles of the cell

What stage of mitosis does DNA replicate?

Interphase

What happened during interphase? (Mitosis)

Chromosomes unravel | Individual chromosomes can't be identified

What happens during prophase? (Mitosis)

Replicated chromosomes begin to condense | Mitotic spindles begin to form

What are sister chromatids?

Identical copies of each chromosome joined at the centromere

What happens during prometaphase? (Mitosis)

Nuclear envelope breaks down Centrosomes moved to opposite ends Spindle fibres extent toward middle of cell

What is the attachment point to a spindle fibre called?

Kinetochore

What happens during metaphase? (Mitosis)

Chromosomes line up along metaphase plate Homologous chromosomes are not paired Line up in random order

What happens during anaphase? (Mitosis)

Spindle fibres pull sister chromatids apart Sister chromatids now individual chromosomes Migrate to opposite poles of cell

What happens during telophase? (Mitosis)

Nuclear envelope reforms Chromosomes begin to unravel Cell begins to split in half

What happens during cytokinesis?

Cell pinches in two and divides | CLEAVAGE FURROW

What is the end result of mitosis?

Two identical daughter cells

How many sets of chromosomes do somatic cells have?

What is a zygote?

Diploid embryo

How many chromosomes do gametes have?

What happens in prophase 1 of meiosis that doesn't happen during mitosis?

Homologous chromosomes pair up

What is chiasmata?

Non sister chromatids stick together at various points | 'Crossing over'

What is the end result of meiosis?

4 daughter cells with 1 chromosome

What is a mutation?

Changes in the base sequence

What is the result of synonymous substitutions?

The same amino acid is coded for

What is the result of missense substitutions?

Amino acid changes

What is the result of a nonsense substitution?

Stop in the middle

What is the name for different forms of the same gene?

Allele

What does genotype mean?

Individuals genetic make up

What does phenotype mean?

What the individual looks like

What were Medels 3 theories?

1. Blending inheritance 2. Inheritance of acquired characteristics 3. Particulate inheritance

What is blending inheritance?

Material from parents mixes like paint Offspring is a mic of two parents Once mixed can't be separated

What are acquired characteristics?

A parent that acquires a skill or appearance in its lifetime will pass that on to its offspring Genetic material can be modified by experience

What is particulate inheritance?

Material exists as discrete units | Retain their identity in the offspring

What is hybridisation?

Crossing true breeding parents

Which one of Mendelssohn theories is true?

The particulate model of inheritance

What ratio always occurred in mono hybrid crosses? (Mendel)

3:1

What is a homologous chromosome?

One chromosome comes from the mother and one comes from the father

Homozygous meaning

Same

Heterozygous meaning

Different

What is Mendel's first law?

The law of segregation

Explain the law of segregation

* Each gamete contains only one of the two possible alleles * Each gamete receives only one copy of each chromosome * So it only receives one allele of each gene

What does a punnet square do?

Works out what genotype and phenotype ratio we expect in the offspring of a given cross

What does a test cross show?

If an organism with a dominant trait is a dominant homozygote or a heterozygote

What is mendels second law?

The law of independent assortment

Explain the else of independent assortment

* traits are inherited independently | * a particular trait for one characteristic is not paired with a particular trait of the other character

When does recombination occur?

During meiosis

What is recessivity?

Whole spectrum of dominance

What is codominance?

Both alleles expressed in the organisms phenotype at the same time

What is polydactyl?

More than 5 fingers or toes

What is pleiotropy?

Most genes affect more than one character

What is epistasis?

One gene affects how another is expressed in phenotype

What is penetrance?

Probability that gene will be expressed

What is expressivity?

Level of expression of a particular gene

What is polygenic inheritance?

Most characters are influenced by many genes

What does hermaphrodite mean?

Possess male and female sex organs

What does dioecious mean?

Individuals are male or female

Females are homogametic. What does this mean?

The can only make gametes that contain X chromosomes

Males are heterogametic. What does this mean?

The can make gametes that either contain X or Y chromosomes

What does hemizygous mean?

Can only have one copy of genes

What is sex linkage?

Gene on differential region show sex specific inheritance

What makes a man?

* genes in holandric region determine maleness * at 10 weeks embryo begins to differentiate into boy or girl * sex determining region of Y is switched on * generic gonads develop into testes otherwise develops as female (default setting)

What to fathers pass to daughters that they don't pass to sons?

X linked alleles

Who do sons get their one X chromosome from?

Mother (and a Y from father)

What are BARR bodies?

Inactivated X chromosomes

What is lyonisation?

Inactivation of chromosomes is random and independent