Section 1 - The Language of Reasoning Flashcards
(129 cards)
1
Q
What is an argument?
A
A piece of writing that tries to persuade you to accept a conclusion.
2
Q
What is a conclusion?
A
The idea, belief or theory that an argument is trying to persuade you to accept.
3
Q
What are the two types of conclusion?
A
- Intermediate conclusion
* Main conclusion
4
Q
What is an argument’s conclusion often referred to as and why?
A
- The main conclusion
* To stop it being confused with the intermediate conclusion
5
Q
What is a reason?
A
A part of an argument that aims to persuade you that the conclusion is true.
6
Q
What must an argument consist of?
A
- At least one reason
* Only one main conclusion
7
Q
What is an assertion?
A
A conclusion/statement that isn’t supported by any reasons.
8
Q
What happens if an argument doesn’t include any reasons?
A
It is an assertion, not an argument.
9
Q
Describe the difference between an argument and an assertion.
A
An argument includes REASONS, while an assertion is just a statement.
10
Q
Name the element: “Custard creams are the best biscuit ever.”
A
Assertion - there is no reason backing it up.
11
Q
What is the structure of an argument?
A
- The different parts of an argument and the logical way they’re linked together.
- It is NOT the order of the reasons and the conclusion, but the way in which they are all linked logically.
12
Q
Does changing the order of an argument’s parts change the structure?
A
No, the order can be changed without changing the logical link between the conclusion and reasons.
13
Q
What is common notation?
A
Using letters to stand for the different elements of an argument so you can see its structure more clearly.
14
Q
Give the common notation symbols for: • Reason • Conclusion • Counter-assertion • Counter-argument
A
- Reason - R
- Conclusion - C
- Counter-assertion/Counter-argument - CA
15
Q
What is the common notation for an argument with one reason and one conclusion?
A
R -> C
16
Q
In common notation, what happens if there’s more than one reason?
A
They’re numbered like this: R1, R2, etc.
17
Q
What are the important things to remember when asked to “state” something in a document?
A
- Quote directly from the text -> Don’t rephrase!
* Don’t use ellipsis (…)!
18
Q
What is an argument indicator?
A
A word that shows that a reason or conclusion might be coming up. (e.g. “therefore”)
19
Q
Name some reason indicators.
A
- Because
- Since
- As
- Due to
- For
20
Q
Name some conclusion indicators.
A
- Therefore
- Thus
- So
- Consequently
- Should (!)
- Which is why
21
Q
Do argument indicators always work?
A
No, because:
• Some arguments contain no indicator words
• Argument indicators can be used in other contexts as well -> Misleading
22
Q
State the conclusion in this argument:
“We should consider both sides of the debate before criticising beauty contests. It’s easy to condemn something that seems so focused on the superficial, but perhaps perhaps they do promote something other than shallowness. For example, many contestants argue that the contests encourage public speaking and therefore improve their self-confidence.”
A
“We should consider both sides of the debate before criticising beauty contests.”
23
Q
What is the “Therefore Test” used for?
A
Finding the reasons and conclusions in a piece of text.
24
Q
Describe the “Therefore Test”.
A
1) Put the word “therefore in front of a statement to see if it works as a conclusion.
2) Then insert the word “because” in front of the other statements to check the conclusion follows from them.
3) If it makes sense -> You correctly identified parts of the argument
25
If you get stuck trying to decide whether something is a reason or a conclusion, what is a good question to ask yourself?
Is this telling me *why* I should accept something or is it telling me *what* I should accept?
26
Remember to revise the "Therefore Test".
See pg 7 of revision guide.
27
What is a counter-argument?
* Part of an argument that goes against the main conclusion
| * Always has a conclusion + at least one reason
28
What is a counter-assertion?
* A statement that goes against the conclusion of an argument
* Not supported by any reasons
29
Why are counter-arguments and counter-assertions included in an argument?
* Dismissing them can strengthen an argument's conclusion.
| * Makes it seem balanced and well thought through.
30
What is it called when you show that a counter-argyment or counter-assertion is wrong?
Dismissing it.
31
Find and name the counter-element:
"My friend thinks Light-Hearted Love Romp, that film with Brad DiPaprio in it, will be really entertaining, but him last film was boring, and he's not fit at all. Moody Vampire Angst would be much more enjoyable."
COUNTER-ASSERTION:
"My friend thinks Light-Hearted Love Romp, that film with Brad DiPaprio in it, will be really entertaining"
DISMISSAL:
"but him last film was boring, and he's not fit at all. Moody Vampire Angst would be much more enjoyable."
32
Find and name the counter-element:
"It could be argued that exams must be getting easier because the percentage of A grades is increasing. However, it's more likely that this increase is due to improvements in teaching in the last ten years."
COUNTER-ARGUMENT:
"It could be argued that exams must be getting easier because the percentage of A grades is increasing."
DISMISSAL:
"However, it's more likely that this increase is due to improvements in teaching in the last ten years."
33
Why do counter-assertions and counter-arguments have the same common notation?
Because they preform the same role.
34
What is the difference between a counter-argument and a counter-assertion?
* A counter-argument is a whole argument - it has at least one reason and conclusion.
* A counter-assertion is just a statement without any supporting reasons.
NOTE: This refers to the counter-element, NOT its dismissal!
35
Remember to revise the difference between a counter-argument and counter-assertion.
Pg 8 of revision guide.
36
What steps must be taken when asked to find the counter-argument/counter-assertion in an argument?
1) Make sure you know the conclusion of the argument
2) Look for reasons/statements that go against this
3) Also, look out for counter-element indicator words
37
Name some counter-assertion/counter-argument indicator words.
* Despite this
* It has been claimed
* However
* Contrary to this
* Although
* Some people argue
38
What is hypothetical reasoning?
A claim saying that if one thing happens, then something else will happen.
39
What are the two key words often found in hypothetical reasoning?
If...Then
40
In hypothetical reasoning, are the words "if" and "then" always seen?
No, and the order of the clauses may be reversed.
41
How may hypothetical reasoning be used?
* Reason
| * Conclusion
42
Can hypothetical reasoning be used as a conclusion? Give an example.
Yes.
"So if I wear too much jewellery to school, then it will be confiscated."
43
When asked to give an example of hypothetical reasoning from the text and explain your answer, what is it important to remember?
* To explain WHY this is hypothetical reasoning.
| * 'The consequence, "X", depends upon a conditional event, 'Y".'
44
What is an assumption?
An unstated reason that is needed for the argument to work.
45
How do assumptions relate to the conclusion?
* They are *necessary* to the conclusion.
| * They are needed to connect the reasons to the conclusion.
46
How many assumptions can an argument have?
Several
47
Do assumptions make an argument weak?
Not necessarily - only if the assumptions are questionable.
48
State an assumption made:
"The weatherman said it's going to rain later, so you should pack an umbrella."
You will want to protect yourself from the rain and an umbrella is the best way to do that.
49
State an assumption made:
"As some of the students are allergic to goats, we shouldn't go to a petting zoo on the school trip."
The petting zoo will aggravate the students' allergies because it has goats.
50
What steps must be taken when finding an assumption made by an argument?
1) Identify the reasons and conclusion
2) Think about how the two are connected
3) Identify the missing steps that join the reasons to the conclusion
51
State an assumption made:
R1 - It is the police's duty to protect the public from danger.
R2 - High-speed chases are the only way to catch some criminals.
C - Therefore, high-speed chases are needed so police can do their duty.
A significant proportion of criminals are more dangerous to the public than high-speed chases.
52
In the following assumption, why is "a significant proportion of criminals" used instead of "all criminals"?
“A significant proportion of criminals are more dangerous to the public than high-speed chases."
This ensures that the assumption isn't too strong.
53
State an assumption made:
R1 - Students need to be studying literature that improves their grasp of today's language.
R2 - The language in Shakespeare's plays is centuries old, and students are often unable to understand the basic meaning, let alone the subtle wordplay and imagery.
C - Therefore, Shakespeare should be dropped from the syllabus in favour of more modern texts.
* Shakespeare has no other educational benefits.
| * There is not room on the syllabus for both modern texts and Shakespeare.
54
What must you be careful of when formulating assumptions?
Making sure that they aren't:
• Too strong
• Too weak
• Irrelevant
55
What is wrong with the formulated assumption:
| "All criminals are more dangerous than high-speed chases"?
It is too strong.
56
What is wrong with the formulated assumption:
| “A few criminals might be more dangerous than high-speed chases"?
It is too weak.
57
How can you ensure that the assumption you formulate isn't too weak or too strong?
* Use phrases like: "a significant proportion", "many" and "a large number"
* Check whether the assumption seems realistic
58
What is the "Opposite Test" used for?
Checking that assumptions are necessary to make an argument work.
59
Describe the "Opposite Test".
1) State the reasons given in the text.
2) Insert the exact opposite of the assumptions identified.
3) Then see if the conclusion still follows from the reasons -> It shouldn't, if the assumptions are necessary.
60
Remember to revise the "Opposite Test".
Pg 11 of the revision guide.
61
What is evidence?
Results, statistics and quotes that support one of the argument’s reasons.
62
What is the purpose of evidence?
* Support one of the argument’s reasons
| * Make the reasons more convincing
63
Name the argument element in asterisk:
“You should eat more vegetables because they’re good for you. *Courgettes help prevent heart disease and carrots fight against premature ageing*.”
Evidence
64
Name the argument element in asterisk:
“It’s important for young children to have a male role model. *Research has revealed that 44% of people felt that having a male primary school teacher helped build their confidence.* Therefore we should encourage male graduates to become teachers.”
Evidence
65
How does evidence in the form of research help an argument?
It proves that one of the reasons is true.
66
What are the different categories of research?
* Personal observation
* Statement (from a source or witness)
* Estimates
* Data from a survey
67
Name the type of evidence:
“Professor Grayling, Head of Child Development Studies at Canford University, argues recently that ‘when exposed to certain types of media, children’s moral values are more likely to shift from kindness and creativity towards materialism and vanity’.”
Statement from a source or witness
68
Name the type of evidence:
“I see more and more young girls performing provocative dance routines in the playground. They’re clearly influenced by today’s controversial artists.”
Personal observation
69
Name the type of evidence:
“Recent estimates, based on trends in GCSE and A-Level choices, predict that by 2035 the number of out-of-work actor-wannabes will outnumber useful society members by 7 to 1.”
Estimates
70
Name the type of evidence:
“In a survey of 360 children between the ages of 6 and 8, 15 wanted to be firefighters, 193 wanted to be singers, 130 wanted to be actors, 12 wanted to be nurses, 8 wanted to be explorers and 2 wanted to be clowns.”
Data from a survey
71
What are statistics?
When numbers are turned into percentages, proportions, graphs or charts to make them easier to understand.
72
Why are statistics used?
They are easier to understand than long lists of numbers.
73
Statistics are a type of...
Evidence
74
Turn this into a statistic:
“In a survey of 2000 households, 1384 used their kettle three times a day, and 416 used it more than 6 times daily.”
More than two thirds of households use their kettle three times a day. About one in five use it more than 6 times daily.
75
What is an example?
An description of a situation where a reason is true, used to support it.
76
What are examples used for?
Supporting reasons by illustrating a situation where they are true.
77
Name the argument element in asterisk:
“Auntie Ethel is finding it hard to move around her house. *Last week, she couldn’t manage the stairs and had to sleep in the sitting room.* She should move into sheltered accommodation.”
Example
78
Do examples support a conclusion?
No, they are too specific to effectively support a broad conclusion.
79
Do examples only support reasons?
No, they can also illustrate evidence.
80
Name each argument element:
* Exercise is a very effective way to cope with arthritic pain.
* Studies show that a 20% increase in physical activity can improve joint flexibility by more than 40%.
* My Auntie Liz does yoga every day, and her arthritis never bothers her.
* The NHS should provide classes and schemes encouraging exercise for arthritis sufferers.
* Reason
* Evidence
* Example
* Conclusion
81
What is the common notation for evidence?
Ev
82
What is the common notation for an example?
Ex
83
Are examples and evidence as important as reasons and the conclusion? Why?
* No, because they are not essential to the argument’s structure.
* The argument would still work without them.
84
What does evaluating evidence mean?
Deciding if the evidence is useful and whether it gives support to the argument.
85
How do questions about evaluating evidence usually start?
“Explain”
86
What are the most common types of evaluating evidence questions?
Explain how evidence:
• Gives support to an argument.
• Gives limited support to an argument.
87
What factors must be considered when looking at evidence?
* Reasonable proportion of population surveyed
* Representative
* Statistics interpreted in different ways
* Relevant
* Evidence interpreted in different ways
88
What is a sample?
Part of a population that is surveyed in a survey.
89
What is over-generalisation in surveys?
When a sample used to support statements about a large population is too small -> Less reliable evidence.
90
When evaluating evidence, why must you consider the proportion of a population surveyed?
If the sample size is relatively small compared to the population that the argument refers to, then the evidence cannot be considered reliable.
91
What is it called when evidence about a small sample is used to draw a conclusion about a large population?3
Over-generalisation
92
What does representative mean?
Giving a reliable picture of the whole group being talked about.
93
When evaluating evidence, why must you consider the representativeness of the evidence?
If a claim is made about an entire population, the sample must give an effective overview of the population in order to be reliable.
94
What factors affect how reliable a survey is?
* Backgrounds of individuals -> Economic, geographic, ethnicity, religious
* Survey method -> Variety of locations
95
What background factors must be considered when evaluating the representativeness of a survey?
```
Must be different:
• Economic backgrounds
• Geographic backgrounds
• Ethnicities
• Religious groups
```
96
Why does the method used for a survey affect the representativeness?
* The location, etc. of a survey may affect the sample diversity
* e.g. A survey about car-ownership in students in general would not be representative if it was ONLY done at a bus stop, since most people there would not own a car
97
What must you do when asked to say how representative one person’s views are of a group?
* Look for similarities between that person and the group as a whole
* DON’T just say “it’s only one person’s opinion”
98
What factors might you look out for when asked to say how representative one person’s views are of a group?
* Do they know more or less about the situation that the rest of the group?
* Are they the same gender?
* Are they the same age?
99
When evaluating evidence, why must you consider different interpretations of statistics?
* Statistics can be manipulated to suit a person’s argument.
| * For example, the mean, median and mode are all averages, but can give a different picture.
100
Give an example of statistics being interpreted in different ways.
In a set of data, the mean, median and mode can all be referred to as the “average”, but they give different values that can give different ideas.
(See pg 14 of revision guide)
101
When evaluating evidence, why must the relevancy of evidence be considered?
Evidence may only APPEAR to be linked to the reason, when in fact it doesn’t support it.
102
When evaluating evidence, why must different interpretations of the evidence be considered?
* People may choose to offer an explanation for evidence that supports their claim.
* There may be an alternative explanation for the evidence -> The evidence is *ambiguous*
103
What is evidence that has several possible meanings called?
Ambiguous
104
Offer alternative explanations for this evidence:
“For her last film, Carmel Hoverfork earned £12 million, making her the highest paid actress of 2010. This proves that she is the most talented actress of today.”
* Carmel Hoverfork is the actress with the most demanding agent.
* She is today’s most popular actress, which guarantees the highest ticket sales, so directors will pay more to have her in their films.
105
Evaluate this evidence:
“82% of teenagers in Borisville (population: 100,000) think fish, chips and mushy peas is a balanced meal (based on a survey of 100 teenagers).”
* The sample size is relatively small compared to the population of Borisville
* Over-generalisation
* So the use of evidence is weak
106
Evaluate this evidence:
“Research has found that 78% of students now have a car (survey done on a car insurance website).”
* The method of the survey means that the evidence is not representative of the population
* Most people on a car insurance website are likely to have a car
* So the use of evidence is weak
107
Evaluate this use of evidence:
“The average British family doesn’t make the effort to eat healthily anymore. Studies show that 71% of families regularly eat dinner in front of the television, instead of whilst talking around the dinner table.”
* The evidence is not relevant to the reason
* It tells us *where* families eat, but not *what* they are eating
* So the use of the evidence is weak
108
Evaluate this use of evidence:
“For her last film, Carmel Hoverfork earned £12 million, making her the highest paid actress of 2010. This proves that she is the most talented actress of today.”
* The evidence is ambiguous -> There might be another explanation for it
* So the reason is not supported
* So the use of evidence is weak
109
What steps must you take when asked to provide extra reasons to support an argument?
1) Pick out the reasons in the argument so you don’t repeat anything
2) Identify the key parts of the conclusion
3) Ensure the reason you give is relevant to EACH of the key points
110
What is it important to remember to do when asked to provide extra reasons to support an argument and how can you do this?
* Give a reason that supports ALL parts of the conclusion.
* You can combine two points in the conclusion, but ensure that they are not separate reasons or intermediate conclusions.
111
What are some dos and don’ts of providing extra reasons to support an argument?
DON’T:
• Rephrase a reason already in the text
• Write something irrelevant to the conclusion
• Support only part of the conclusion
• Add too many reasons, an intermediate conclusion or an example
DO:
• Combine two points in the reason to make sure it supports all parts of he conclusion
112
What does it mean when you are asked to “Assess how strongly these reasons support the conclusion”?
* You must write about how strongly the reasons and conclusion are linked.
* You don’t need to write about the argument overall.
113
What factors must be considered when assessing whether a reason supports a conclusion?
* Relevance
* All parts of conclusion supported
* Consistent reasoning
* Consistent language
* Questionable assumptions
114
Does an argument have to be linked to all parts of a conclusion to be relevant?
* No, it can be relevant even if it’s only linked to one part
* BUT this only weakly supports the conclusion
115
When deciding whether a reason is relevant to the conclusion, what must you be careful to check?
The reasons must be about PRECISELY the same thing as the conclusion.
116
Assess how strong the reasons support the conclusion:
“We should sent send a petition to the British government, asking them to ban violent video games in our country. After all, it is their duty to do everything in their power to keep children safe from harm. Video games are so popular that some studies have shown that Super Mario is more recognisable to children than Mickey Mouse.”
* “It is their duty to do everything in their power to keep children safe from harm” -> Relevant -> Because it gives a reason why the petition should be sent to the government specifically
* “Video games are so popular that some studies have shown that Super Mario is more recognisable to children than Mickey Mouse” -> Not relevant -> On the topic of video games, but not violent video games or why they should be banned
117
Which parts of this conclusion must be supported by reasons:
| “We should petition the government to ban violent video games”?
* Petition
* Violent video game banning
* Sent to government
118
In an argument, does each reason have to support all parts of the conclusion?
No, as long as there is a reason to support each part of the conclusion.
119
Assess how strongly the reasons support the conclusion:
“Our government is not doing enough to protect our children from violent video games. One of its key roles is to help children grow up to be friendly and responsible members of society. A concerned citizens, it is our duty to remind the government when it is neglecting this vital task. Therefore, we should petition the government to ban violent video games. After all, an internet petition is the best way to establish general public support because it reaches a wide audience, and allows you to voice your concerns from the comfort of your own home. It’s an effective and easy way of expressing our views to the government.”
* Reasons are given to support the “petition” and that it should be sent to the “government”.
* But there are no reasons why violent video games are a problem.
* So the conclusion is only weakly supported.
120
What is it called when two reasons can’t be true at once?
Inconsistent reasoning
121
What is the problem with inconsistent reasoning?
You can’t accept the all the reasons, so you can’t accept the conclusion - it is weak.
122
Assess how strongly these reasons support the conclusion:
“Some people argue that it’s natural for children to play aggressively, and if you take away violent video games they’ll just pick up sticks and pretend to be shooting guns. But just because aggression is natural doesn’t mean it’s a good thing. Video games are also showing signs of being addictive. There have been reports of children spending over 12 hours a day in a darkened room, talking to no one, just staring at a flickering screen. That is not natural.”
* First, the argument claims that you cannot assume something is good just because it is natural. Then, it assumes that something is bad because it is not natural.
* This is inconsistent reasoning.
* It is weak.
123
What is the term for using two different words as if they mean the same thing?
Conflation
124
Assess how strongly the reasons support the conclusion:
“Exposure to violent video causes an increase in feelings of aggression in stressful situations. Aggressive behaviour in stressful situations often leads to incidents of fights and physical abuse, so a ban on violent video games would help decrease rates of violent crime.”
* The argument conflates “feelings of aggression” and “aggressive behaviour”.
* This means that the reasoning does not logically follow.
* This is weak.
125
Do assumptions weaken an argument?
No, not unless the assumption is questionable.
126
What is a questionable assumption?
An assumption that most people wouldn’t necessarily agree with.
127
Name and evaluate the assumption:
“Banning video games would increase the spread of computer viruses, because more people would download games illegally. Therefore the government shouldn’t ban them.”
* Assumption: Computer viruses are bad
| * This is an acceptable assumption.
128
Name and evaluate the assumption:
“Violent video games provide an outlet for aggression. It’s natural for youths to be aggressive, so the government should encourage the use of violent video games.”
* Assumption: Something should be encouraged just because it’s natural
* This is a questionable assumption
129
When asked to assess how strongly reasons support a conclusion, what must you remember to do?
* Include quotes to back up your ideas.
* Explain each point with relevance to the text.
* It’s good to consider both strengths and weaknesses
(See example pg 19 of revision guide)
