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Biology > Section C > Flashcards

Section C Flashcards

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1
Q

The three lipases and their roles:

A

Lingual lipase: Secreted by tongue, begins initial breakdown of triglycerides
Gastric lipase: Secreted by stomach, continues triglyceride breakdown in acidic environment
Pancreatic lipase: Secreted by pancreas, main enzyme for fat digestion in small intestine, breaks down triglycerides into fatty acids and monoglycerides

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2
Q

Four steps in triglyceride absorption/transport:

A

1.Emulsification by bile salts
2. Formation of micelles
3. Absorption into intestinal epithelial cells
4. Repackaging into chylomicrons for transport via lymph system

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3
Q

Final products of lipid digestion and pathways:

A

Fatty acids → β-oxidation pathway
Glycerol → converted to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, enters glycolysis
Monoglycerides → broken down to fatty acids and glycerol

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4
Q

Three steps of fatty acid oxidation:

A
  1. Activation (fatty acid + CoA → fatty acyl-CoA)
  2. Transport into mitochondria
  3. β-oxidation cycle (produces acetyl-CoA)
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5
Q

Four reactions in chain elongation during lipogenesis:

A
  1. Condensation
  2. Reduction
  3. Dehydration
  4. Second reduction
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6
Q

Role of HCl in protein digestion:

A
  • Denatures proteins by breaking hydrogen bonds
  • Activates pepsinogen to pepsin
  • Creates acidic environment needed for pepsin activity
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7
Q

Three protein digesting enzymes:
Pancreatic:

A

Trypsin: Breaks peptide bonds after basic amino acids
Chymotrypsin: Breaks bonds after aromatic amino acids
Carboxypeptidase: Removes amino acids from carboxyl end

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8
Q

What is Nitrogen balance: with an example

A

State where nitrogen intake equals nitrogen output
Positive balance example: Growing children, pregnancy, muscle building

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9
Q

List and briefly explain the three steps involved in removal of amino group during amino acid
degradation.

A
  1. Transamination: Transfer of amino group to α-ketoglutarate
  2. Oxidative deamination: Removal of amino group as ammonia
  3. Transport of ammonia to liver for urea cycle
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10
Q

Outline the fate of Ammonia, NADH and α-ketoglutarate produced during oxidative deamination

A

Ammonia enters urea cycle
NADH enters electron transport chain
α-ketoglutarate enters citric acid cycle

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11
Q

Explain Negative nitrogen balance:

A

When nitrogen output exceeds intake, occurs during starvation or illness

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12
Q

Outline the four stages of biochemical energy production pathways.

A
  1. Digestion - Breaking down complex molecules into simple units
  2. Acetyl group formation - Converting molecules to acetyl-CoA
  3. Citric acid cycle - Oxidation of acetyl-CoA to CO2
  4. Electron transport chain/oxidative phosphorylation - ATP production
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13
Q

Identify the metabolic pathway each macromolecule will take to form the acetyl group

A
  • Carbohydrates: Glycolysis → pyruvate → acetyl-CoA
  • Lipids: β-oxidation → acetyl-CoA
  • Proteins: Amino acid degradation → various intermediates → acetyl-CoA
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14
Q

Briefly explain how the metabolic pathways of the macros are related to the common pathway

A

All pathways produce acetyl-CoA which enters the citric acid cycle, followed by the electron transport chain, forming the common final pathway for energy production.

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15
Q

Identify where does the urea formation take place in the body and explain how it is eliminated from the body

A

Occurs in liver cells
Urea is transported via blood to kidneys and eliminated in urine

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16
Q

List and briefly explain the four steps of urea cycle, clearly outlining the location of each step within
the cell

A
  1. Carbamoyl phosphate synthesis (mitochondria)
  2. Citrulline formation (mitochondria)
  3. Argininosuccinate formation (cytosol)
  4. Urea formation (cytosol)
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17
Q

Outline any two (2) products formed during the carbon skeleton degradation of the amino acids and
explain how they are related to the metabolic pathways?

A
  1. Pyruvate: Enters gluconeogenesis or forms acetyl-CoA
    2.α-ketoglutarate: Enters citric acid cycle directly
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18
Q

Briefly outline the role of insulin on the metabolism of various macromolecules in the fed state

A

Carbohydrates: Stimulates glucose uptake, glycolysis, and glycogen synthesis
Lipids: Promotes fatty acid and triglyceride synthesis, inhibits lipolysis
Proteins: Increases amino acid uptake and protein synthesis

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19
Q

G6P is an important intermediate of various carbohydrate metabolisms. What is the role of G6P
molecule during the fed state?

A

Acts as substrate for glycogen synthesis
Can enter glycolysis for energy production
Regulates glucose uptake through feedback inhibition
Can be converted to pentose phosphate pathway

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20
Q

Name the major hormone that manages the fasting state metabolism.

A

Glucagon

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21
Q

List the five (5) metabolic processes associated with the fasting state

A

Glycogenolysis
Gluconeogenesis
Lipolysis
β-oxidation
Ketogenesis

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22
Q

Explain what is starvation and how does body get energy during starvation?

A

Starvation occurs when glycogen stores are depleted (>12-18 hours fasting). Body gets energy by:

Breaking down triglycerides for fatty acids
Converting amino acids from protein breakdown
Producing ketone bodies from excess acetyl-CoA
Using gluconeogenesis to maintain blood glucose

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23
Q

Name the four organs that constitute our renal system

Study These Flashcards
A

Kidneys
Ureters
Urinary bladder
Urethra

24
Q

For each of the organ that makes up the renal system, outline one function within the renal system

Study These Flashcards
A

Kidneys: Filter blood, produce urine, regulate blood pressure
Ureters: Transport urine from kidneys to bladder
Urinary bladder: Stores urine temporarily
Urethra: Conducts urine from bladder to exterior

25
For any two organs of the renal system, briefly describe its structure and location:
The kidneys: Bean-shaped organs approximately 10-12 centimeters long Located retroperitoneally at vertebrae T12-L3 Protected by the 11th and 12th ribs The urinary bladder: Hollow, distensible muscular organ Located in the pelvic cavity Positioned behind the pubic bone, anterior to the rectum
26
Outline the two major portions of a nephron:
The renal corpuscle The renal tubule
27
Briefly describe each structural portion of nephron outlined above:
The renal corpuscle: Contains a network of capillaries called the glomerulus The glomerulus is surrounded by Bowman's capsule Functions as the primary site of blood filtration The renal tubule: Consists of the proximal convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle, and the distal convoluted tubule Functions as the site of selective reabsorption and secretion Contains specialized epithelial cells for substance transport
28
Outline the pathway that a drop of urine would travel from the collecting duct to the urethra:
The urine travels through: The collecting duct Through the papillary ducts Into the minor calyces Through the major calyces Into the renal pelvis Down the ureter Into the bladder Finally through the urethra
29
List any four regulatory functions of the kidneys:
Regulation of blood pressure Maintenance of blood pH balance Control of blood volume Regulation of electrolyte balance
30
Briefly explain any two regulatory functions of the KD
Regulation of blood pressure: Utilizes the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system to regulate blood pressure Controls blood volume through selective water retention or excretion Adjusts sodium reabsorption to influence blood pressure Maintenance of blood pH balance: Selectively excretes or conserves hydrogen ions as needed Maintains appropriate bicarbonate levels in the blood Adjusts acid-base balance through controlled excretion
31
Briefly outline any two internal features of renal parenchyma:
The renal cortex: Forms the outer region of the kidney Contains the majority of nephrons The renal medulla: Forms the inner region of the kidney Contains the renal pyramids
32
List and define the three processes involved in urine formation
Glomerular filtration: The process where blood plasma is filtered through the glomerular capillaries into Bowman's capsule Creates the initial filtrate containing water, ions, and small molecules Tubular reabsorption: The selective reabsorption of useful substances from the filtrate back into the blood Includes reabsorption of water, glucose, amino acids, and important ions Tubular secretion: The active secretion of additional substances from the blood into the filtrate Includes secretion of excess hydrogen ions, potassium ions, and certain drugs
33
What is micturition? Briefly explain the micturition reflex:
Micturition is the process of voiding urine from the bladder. The micturition reflex involves: Stretch receptors in the bladder wall are activated when the bladder fills Parasympathetic nerve signals trigger contraction of the detrusor muscles The internal and external sphincter muscles relax The process can be partially controlled through voluntary control of the external sphincter
34
Name any four organs of the male reproductive system:
The testes The epididymis The prostate gland The seminal vesicles
35
For each organ of the male reproductive system, outline two functions:
The testes: Production of sperm cells through spermatogenesis Production of testosterone and other male hormones The epididymis: Storage and maturation of sperm cells Transport of sperm from testes to vas deferens The prostate gland: Produces alkaline fluid that neutralizes acidic vaginal environment Secretes nutrients that support sperm survival The seminal vesicles: Produce fructose for sperm cell energy Secrete fluid that makes up approximately 60% of semen volume
36
Name any two types of cells found in the testes and outline their function:
Sertoli cells: Support and nourish developing sperm cells Provide barrier protection for developing sperm Leydig cells: Produce testosterone Regulate male secondary sexual characteristics
37
Define spermatogenesis:
Spermatogenesis is the process of formation and development of mature spermatozoa from primordial germ cells within the seminiferous tubules of the testes.
38
Outline the four major stages of spermatogenesis:
Multiplication phase: Spermatogonia undergo mitotic division Produces more spermatogonia Growth phase: Primary spermatocytes form DNA replication occurs Maturation phase: Meiosis I produces secondary spermatocytes Meiosis II produces spermatids Transformation phase (spermiogenesis): Spermatids develop into mature spermatozoa Formation of acrosome, tail, and condensed nucleus
39
Briefly outline the morphology of a mature sperm:
The mature sperm consists of: Head: Contains condensed nucleus with genetic material Acrosome with enzymes for egg penetration Midpiece: Contains mitochondria for energy production Provides power for sperm movement Tail: Flagellum for locomotion Propels sperm through female reproductive tract
40
List four male reproductive organs that contribute to formation of semen:
The seminiferous tubules The seminal vesicles The prostate gland The bulbourethral glands
41
Outline the composition of secretions from any two glands that contribute to formation of semen:
The seminal vesicles: Fructose-rich fluid Prostaglandins Fibrinogen Vitamin C The prostate gland: Citric acid Acid phosphatase Zinc Proteolytic enzymes
42
Briefly describe the functions of secretions from the seminal vesicles and prostate gland
The seminal vesicles' secretions: Provide energy source for sperm through fructose Aid in sperm motility and survival The prostate gland's secretions: Neutralize acidic vaginal environment Support sperm viability and function
43
List any four components of the reproductive duct system in men:
The seminiferous tubules The epididymal duct The vas deferens The ejaculatory duct
44
For each of the four ducts of the male reproductive system, outline their function:
The seminiferous tubules: Site of sperm production Initial transport of immature sperm The epididymal duct: Storage of sperm Maturation of sperm cells The vas deferens: Transport of mature sperm Storage of sperm before ejaculation The ejaculatory duct: Combines sperm with glandular secretions Propels semen during ejaculation
45
Briefly outline the passage of a sperm, as it moves through the ductus system from the seminiferous tubules to the urethra:
Sperm travels from: Seminiferous tubules → straight tubules → rete testis → efferent ductules → epididymis → vas deferens → ejaculatory duct → urethra
46
Name any four organs of the female reproductive system:
The ovaries The uterine tubes (fallopian tubes) The uterus The vagina
47
For each of the 4 main organs of the female reproductive system, outline two functions
The ovaries: Production of female gametes (oocytes) Secretion of female hormones (estrogen and progesterone) The uterine tubes: Transport of oocyte from ovary toward uterus Site of fertilization The uterus: Implantation and development of fertilized ovum Protection and nourishment of developing fetus The vagina: Passage for menstrual flow Birth canal during parturition
48
Briefly describe the structure of Ovaries:
The ovaries are: Paired, almond-shaped organs located in the upper pelvic cavity Composed of: * Outer cortex containing ovarian follicles * Inner medulla with blood vessels and connective tissue * Covered by cuboidal epithelium and tunica albuginea
49
Outline any two differences between oogenesis and spermatogenesis:
Number of gametes produced: 1. Oogenesis produces one functional ovum from one primary oocyte Spermatogenesis produces four functional sperm from one primary spermatocyte 2. Timing of completion: Oogenesis begins in fetal life and pauses until puberty Spermatogenesis begins at puberty and continues throughout life
50
List the six phases of development in the primordial follicles:
1. Primordial follicle phase: Primary oocyte surrounded by single layer of follicular cells 2. Primary follicle phase: Development of zona pellucida Multiple layers of granulosa cells form 3. Secondary follicle phase Formation of antrum Development of theca cells 4. Mature follicle phase: Large antrum formation Complete development of corona radiata 5. Ovulation: Follicle rupture Release of secondary oocyte 6. Corpus luteum formation: Transformation of remaining follicular tissue Hormone production
51
What is the fate of secondary oocyte after ovulation: After ovulation, the secondary oocyte can:
Be fertilized by sperm and complete meiosis II to form mature ovum If not fertilized within 24-48 hours, it will degenerate and be resorbed by the body
52
Outline the four major parts of the uterus:
The fundus: Dome-shaped superior portion Located above the openings of uterine tubes The body: Main portion of uterus Contains the uterine cavity The isthmus: Narrow portion Located between body and cervix The cervix: Inferior portion Opens into vagina
53
List the three layers of uterine walls:
The perimetrium (outer layer) The myometrium (middle layer) The endometrium (inner layer)
54
Identify and briefly describe the structure of the layer of the uterus that sloughs off each month:
The functional layer (stratum functionalis) of the endometrium: Consists of simple columnar epithelium Contains spiral arterioles Rich in glands and connective tissue Responds to hormonal changes during menstrual cycle Completely shed during menstruation
55
List the different parts of the uterine tube and briefly describe their structure:
The infundibulum: Funnel-shaped opening near ovary Contains finger-like projections called fimbriae Opens into peritoneal cavity The ampulla: Widest and longest portion Site of fertilization Contains mucosal folds and ciliated epithelium The isthmus: Narrow portion Thick-walled Connects to uterus
56
What is ovulation:
Ovulation is: The process of releasing a mature secondary oocyte from the ovarian follicle Occurs approximately day 14 of a typical 28-day menstrual cycle Triggered by surge in luteinizing hormone
57
Name two supportive ligaments of uterus:
The broad ligaments The round ligaments

Biology (4 decks)

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