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Session 1 Flashcards

0
Q

What is dark field?

A

Light refracted from organelles.
Tests for malaria & syphillis

Advantage: live unstained sample

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1
Q

What is phase contrast microscopy?

A

Uses interference effect when 2 sets of waves combine.
Waves passing in are bright and out phase are dark. Waves passing through cell are duller hence contrast gives image.

Advantage: enhances unstained image

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2
Q

What is Fluorescene?

A

Using uv light and fluorescent markers on antibodies to detect specific shapes.
Can see micro tubules, actin filaments, and metaphase chromosomes with a dye that fluorescences when DNA is bound

Advantage: multiple fluorescent stains on one specimen

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3
Q

What is Confocal Microscopy?

A

More than 1 fluorescent probe, optical sections using a laser across the specimen. This provides a collect of 2D images that is electronically constructed into a 3D image. This method is non-invasive.

Advantage: removes out of focus flares and living specimen and 3D

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4
Q

What is Direct Incision Biopsy used for?

A

Soft tissue. Eg breast, CT, fat, tumours and muscle

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5
Q

What is Currettage and what is it used for?

A

Scraping of cells

Used for skin and tumours

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6
Q

What is endoscopic used for?

A

Intestines, trachea and bladder.

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7
Q

What is Shinkage Artifact?

A

The processing and fixing of tissues causing the tissues to pulled away from each other hence tears hence produces an empty space

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8
Q

What are tissues fixed?

A

To prevent putrification, to preserve cells from lysomes digestion

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9
Q

What are two chemicals used for tissue fixing?

A

Gluteraldehyde & formaldehyde - preserves cross-linked cellular structures.
Also Xylene and ethanol.

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10
Q

What is the tissue embedded in during fixing?

A

Embedded at 56C in wax

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11
Q

What cuts the embedded tissue sample?

A

Microtome using a steel blade, cuts sample into a ribbon of sections

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12
Q

What is histology?

A

Study of the structure of tissue using specialised staining techniques and combining light and elctron microscopy.

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13
Q

What is a biopsy?

A

The removal of a small piece of tissue for microscopic examination

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14
Q

What does Periodic-Acid Schiff stain?

A

Carbohydrates, glycoproteins, mucus-producing cells and goblet cells MAGENTA

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15
Q

What is epithelia?

A

Sheets of continuous cells of varied embryonic origins, that cover the external surfaces and lines the internal surfaces. It is connected to basement membrane.

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16
Q

What are external surfaces?

A

Skin and cornea

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17
Q

What are internal surfaces that are exposed to external?

A

GI, respiratory, genitourinary

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18
Q

Internal surfaces, no external?

A

Pericardium and Pleural sac, peritoneum, blood and lymphatic vessels

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19
Q

What is the basement membrane?

A

Thin, strong and flexible accelluar layer between epithelia and connective tissue

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20
Q

Characteristics of basement membrane?

A

The thickness is determined by the thickness of the reticular fibril layer connected by surrounding CT.
Strong layer for epithelia to attach to
Cellular and molecular filter
Degree of some cancers determined by extent of penetration of basement membrane, eg melanoma

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21
Q

What is the adventitia?

A

The thin outermost layer of CT in the oesophogus

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22
Q

What Pilicae circulares?

A

Circular folds of mucosa and submucosa that project into the hit lumen in Jejunum of s. Intestine

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23
Q

What happens to the distal swellings of the Golgi?

A

They pinch off as migratory Golgi vacuoles

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24
Q

What is the limit of resolution?

A

The minimum distance required to distinguish between two objects and proportional to wavelength

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25
Q

Resolution of light microscope?

A

0.2um

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26
Q

Resolution of electron microscope?

A

0.002um

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27
Q

Out of peroxisomes and lysosomes, which is darker?

A

Peroxisomes are darker

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28
Q

Structure and function of bilipid?

A

Cell memebrane, aliphatic
Impermeable barrier to most water Soluble molecules.
Proteins dissolved in layer mediate other functions of memebrane

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29
Q

Glycocalyx

A

Cell coat made of oligosaccharideband polysaccharide side chains on plasma membrane which provide the cell specificity for:
Communication and adhesion to neighbouring cells and substrate, mobility, movement and division

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30
Q

Structure and function of Plasma memebrane

A 
Selective permeability
Transport of material along cell surface
Exo and endocytosis
Intercellular adhesion and recognition
Signal transduction
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31
Q

Nucleus function?

A

Store DNA
Co-ordinate cell activities
- metab,more than, protein synthesis and mitosis

Mostly chromatin, unstructured form DNA that organises into chromosomes during mitosis

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32
Q

Structure and function of nuclear envelope?

A

Doubled layer memebrane sper eating nucleus constant and cytoplasm. Contains pores allow pass back and forth of specific shaped sized molecules. Attached to network of tumbles called ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

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33
Q

Structure and function of nucleous?

A

Synthesis of ribosomes

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34
Q

Structure and function of rER?

A

Membrane continuous with outer layer of nuclear envelope. Membrane bound vesicles shuttle proteins from rER to Golgi

  • into an glycosylation N-linked
    Lysosomal enzymes with mannose 6-phosphate marker added to CIS-Golgi
    Screwed proteins
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35
Q

Structure and function of sER?

A

Found in liver, mammary gland, ovary, adrenal gland and testes for lipid synthesis and steroidogenesis

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36
Q

Protein movement through Golgi?

A

Vestige bud to convex CIS face.
Polarity means proteins migrate from CIS to concave TRANS.
Golgi modifies, sorts concentrates and packages protein.
Proteins leave Trans for lysomes assembly or secretion.
Secretory vesicles condense into granules and release.

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37
Q

Structure and function of lysosomes?

A

Acid Hydrolases at ph5.
Contain nuclearases, protease, lipases.

It’s membrane proteins are highly glycosylation for protection.

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38
Q

What are residual bodies?

A

Lysosomes have digested contents but have indigestible remnants.

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39
Q

What are primary lysosomes?

A

Endocytosis with membrane bound vesicles (phagosomes) or autophagosomes, or excess secretory product to form SECONDARY LYSOSOMES in which contents degrade

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40
Q

Function of peroxisomes?

A

Sites of oxygen utilisation and H2O2 production
Detoxify toxic molecules that are in bloodstream
Present in all cells
Oxidises alcohol, phenol, formaldehyde

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41
Q

What is in the matrix of mitochondria?

A

Name of kerbs, FA cycles, DNA, RNA, ribosomes and calcium granules.
Similar to bacteria in terms of DNA

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42
Q

Types of cytoskelton?

A

Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Micro tubules

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43
Q

Role of cytoskeleton?

A

Main thing and changing cell shape. Provides
Structural support to plasma and organelles
Movement for organelles etc
Locomotor for lymphocytes, cilia and flagella
Contractibility in muscles

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44
Q

Structure of microfilaments?

A 
5nm
2 strings of actin twisted
Associated with ATP
Assemble and dissociate
Allow microvilli maintain shape
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45
Q

Structure microtubules?

A

13 alpha and beta sub unit polymers to form wall of hollow microtubules,
Originate from centrosome
Found where structures in cell moved
Attachment proteins (dynein and kinesin) attach to organelles and move them alone the microtubules

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46
Q

What is the structure of intermediate filaments?

A

Not dynamic, like microfilaments.
10-12nm
Common in nerve and neurological cells
And in epithelial cells made of CYTOKERATIN
Forms string tough supporting mesh work in cytoplasm and anchored to plasma membrane at strong intracellular junctions

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47
Q

What does Haematoxylin and Eiosin stain?

A

Stains basic components pink - cytoplasm, extracellular proteins as eosinophilic

Stains acidic components blue - nucleic acids, chromatin as are basophilic

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48
Q

What is the limit of resolution for light microscope?

A

0.2um

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49
Q

What’s the limit of resolution for electron miscoscope?

A

0.002nm

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50
Q

Simple squamous epithelia location?

A

Respiratory - alveoli
Body cavities- pericardium, peritoneum, pleural sac
mesothelium
Blood and lymphatic vessels - endothelium
Bowman’s capsule and loop of henle
Inner and middle ear

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51
Q

Function of Simple squamous epithelia?

A

Active transport via pinocytosis
Barrier
Exchange of gases, nutrients, fluid, metabolites
Lubrication- body cavities ie pericardium

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52
Q

Location of Simple cuboidal?

A

Thyroid follicles
Surface of ovaries
Kidney tubules
The small ducts of many exocrine glands

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53
Q

Function of simple cuboidal?

A

Barrier covering
Absorption and conduit - exocrine
Absorption and secretion - kidney
Hormone synthesis, storage and mobilisation

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54
Q

Location of simple columnar?

A 
Stomach lining and gastric glands
Gallbladder
Small intestine and colon
Uterus
Oviducts
Large ducts of many exocrine gland
Ductus Efferentes of testis
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55
Q

Function of the simple columnar cells?

A

Absorption - s intestine colon gallbladder
Secretion - exocrine, gastric glands, stomach lining
Lubrication - s intestine and colon
Transport - oviducts

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56
Q

What other feature may be on simple columnar?

A

Microvilli

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57
Q

Function of microvilli?

A

Increase the surface area.

Also gap junctions

Also occludens binds the plasma memebrane tightly at the apical portions of epithelia to prevent the passing of membrane proteins through ZONA OCCLUDINS. Restrict proteins to apical and segregate basal and lateral portions.

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58
Q

Location of non-keratinised stratified squamous?

A 
Oral cavity
Oesophagus
Larynx
Vagina
Anal canal
Surface of cornea
Inner surface of eyelids
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59
Q

Function of of non-keratinised stratified squamous?

A

Protect against mechanical abrasion

Prevent water loss and keep surfaces moist

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60
Q

Keratinised stratified squamous

A

Surface of skin

Protects against microbes, abrasion, water loss and UV light

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61
Q

Location of pseudostratified squamous?

A 
Nasal cavity
Trachea
Bronchi
Auditory tubes
Large excretory ducts
Epididymis
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62
Q

Function of pseudostratified squamous?

A

Secretion
Absorption
Muscle secretion
Particle trapping

63
Q

microvilli also contain?

A

Junctional complexes

64
Q

Pseudo stratified also has?

A

Cilliated which helps trap mucus and particles and waft them away

65
Q

What is sterocilli?

A

Very long and thin microvilli for surface area for absorption

66
Q

How do transitional epithelia work?

A

Long when relaxed.

Stretched means easy urine passage and protection of cells of toxic chemicals

67
Q

Location of transitional cells?

A

Renal
Ureters
Bladder
Urethra

68
Q

Function of transitional cells?

A

Distensibility

Protection of tissue from toxic chemicals

69
Q

Can cells regenerate?

A

High rate for epithelia and spends on location and function

Capacity ie skin wounds, and replacing skin and GI and uterine wall cells. Injury accelerates.

Epidermis every 28days
Small intestine every 4-6 replaced by regenerative cells in base of crypts

70
Q

What is Metaplasia?

A

Epithelia changing from one type of cell to another stimulated by change in environment

Heavy smoking : psuedostratified columnar in respiratory –> stratified squamous

Barrett’s Esophagus: reflux causes stratified squamous to simple columnar

71
Q

What is neoplasia?

A

Disease in epithelia gives rise to tumour called CARCINOMA

Benign tumours resemble tissue of origin, malignant are altered it abnormal and invade adjacent cells

72
Q

GI tract epithelia?

A

Simple columnar wi micro villi

73
Q

Reproductive tract epithelia?

A

Cilliated simple columnar

74
Q

Cell,s in the deepest layer of stratified epithelia?

A

Basel

75
Q

Minimum diameter of an object in infer to be see as separate by naked eye?

A

100 um

76
Q

A structure seen in tissue under the microscope that does not exist in the actual living tissue?

A

Artefact

77
Q

What are mucous glands?

A

Secrete mucus - mucin are glycosylation polypeptides which stain poorly with H&E

78
Q

What are serous glands?

A

Secretions and enzymes
Watery
No mucus
Eosinophilic hence good staining

79
Q

What are simple glands?

A

Ducts that are not branched

80
Q

Where is simple tubular found?

A

Intestine

81
Q

Simple soiled tubular?

A

Merocrine sweat glands

82
Q

Branched tubular?

A

Gastric glands

Mucous glands of oesophagus and younger and duedunom

83
Q

Simple alveolar?

A

During development, not in adults

84
Q

Simple branched alveolar?

A

Sebaceous glands secreting oil to hair

85
Q

What doe alveolar glands look like?

A

Bunches of grapes

86
Q

What are the cells in glands?

A

Acinar and ductile

87
Q

Compound tubular?

A

Mucous glands of mouth and testes

88
Q

Compound alveolar?

A

Mammary glands

89
Q

Compound tubuloalveolar glands?

A

Salivary

Respiratory and pancreas glands

90
Q

Where are mesocrine glands found?

A

Salivary in parotid gland, pancreas and sweat glands

91
Q

What is merocrine secretion?

A

Membrane bound component.
Fuses to plasma memebrane
Contacts continue to move into extracellular space
Transiently larger membrane, later retrieved

92
Q

What is apocrine secretion?

A

Non-memebrane bound content often lipid
Contacts memebrane and pushes out to form APICAL MEMBRANE
Thin layer surrounds and pinches off
Plasma membrane hence transients u smaller and hence membrane must be added

93
Q

Where does apocrine secretion occur?

A

Mammary glands in breast to sceptre milk with aid of myoepithelial cells which push gland

94
Q

What is holocrine secretion?

A

Disintegration of whole cell
Releasing contents
And discharge of cell

95
Q

Where does holocrine secretion occur?

A

Sebaceous oils to fill hair follicle with sebum oil

96
Q

What is transepithelial transport?

A

In epithelial cells, one end may have endocytosis. Transport vesicles in between across cytoplasm then The lumen side has exocytosis like merocrine

97
Q

What is a gland?

A

Epithelial cell or age gate of cells specialised for secretion

98
Q

Exocrine glands…?

A

Secret products (not hormones) into ducts which lead directly to external environment

99
Q

Endocrine glands?

A

Secrete hormones into blood streams no ducts

100
Q

Examples of exocrine glands?

A

Goblet cells in Jejunum and colon
Parotid gland
Submandibular gland

101
Q

Example of endocrine glands?

A

Pancreas
Thyroid
Parathyroid
Adrenal glands

102
Q

What is submandibular gland and location?

A

Salivary gland located under tongue on floor of mouth

103
Q

What is the parotid gland and its location?

A

Salivary gland located at the back of the mouth

104
Q

What is mucous membrane?

A

Epithelia
Lamina propria
Muscularis mucosae

105
Q

What is lamina propria?

A

Loss connective tissue surrounded by blood and lymphathic vessels as well as immune cells and some smooth muscle cells

106
Q

What type of muscle is the muscularis mucosae?

A

Smooth muscle

107
Q

Where are mucous membranes located?

A

Internal tubing open to exterior ie mucus secreting cells

Alimentary
Respiratory
Urinary tracts

108
Q

What is serous membranes?

A

Thin

2 parts - perietal serosa (outer) and visceral serosa (closest to organs)

109
Q

Where are serous membranes located?

A

Lining closed body cavities
Percardium
Pleural sac
Peritoneum

110
Q

What is contained between the visceral and perietal serous layers?

A

Lubricating fluids to reduce friction

111
Q

What is in gut mesentry?

A

Arteries and veins to take up nutrients

112
Q

What cells are in serous membranes?

A

Simple squamous for lubrication - mesothelium

Thin layer of connective tissue carrying blood vessels and nerves and mucus secreting glands

113
Q

What is submucosa?

A

Connective tissue after mucosa

114
Q

What is in the submucosa?

A

Glands
Arteries
Veins
Nerves

115
Q

What is the muscularis externa?

A

2 layers of smooth muscle
Inner circular
Outer longitudinal

116
Q

What are Peyers Patches?

A

Aggregation of lymphocytes in lamina propria.

Found in gut wall

117
Q

What is jejunal mucosa?

A

The name of the mucosa in small intestines

118
Q

What is he outer layer of the gut wall?

A

Serosa - mesothelium simple squamous + ct

119
Q

Why is muscularis mucosal important for Oesophagus and gut?

A

Aids peristalsis to move food

120
Q

What is the Pilicae circulares in Jejunum?

A

Circular folds of mucosa and submucosa into gut lumen

121
Q

What does jejunem have that aids absorption into small intestine?

A

Micro villi on epithelia - simple columnar

122
Q

What is the mucosa in stomach?

A

Gastric mucosa

123
Q

What is rugae?

A

Folds in gastric mucosa which forms longitudinal ridges in empty stomach - allows expansion of full stomach

124
Q

What are the crypts of Lieberkühns?

A

Short glands that Lie between the villi of epithelia in large intestine

125
Q

Where are the crypts of Loeberkühns found?

A

Epithelia of large intestine/ colon

126
Q

What special things are found int large intestine?

A

Peyers patches which disrupt the epithelia and come form the submucosa

127
Q

What epithelia is in ureters?

A

Transitional

128
Q

What characteristic of lamina propria?

A

Fibroelastic to expand

129
Q

What layer does the ureter not have?

A

Submucosa

130
Q

What are the Type 1&2 cells in alveoli?

A

Type 1 - squamous for gas exchange

Type 2 - cuboidal for surfactant release to reduce friction

131
Q

How are glands controlled?

A

Nervous
Endocrine - eg ACTH
Neurot-endocrine (nervous cells release ATCH)
Negative feed back - eg TSH

132
Q

Name an example of a unicellular secretory gland?

A

Goblet cells

133
Q

What is cystic fibrosis?

A

A genetic disorder where individual lacks a CFTR gene - Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Regulator- in apical membrane if epithelial cells

134
Q

How does a lack of CFTR gene cause disease?

A

Cl- transfer compromised hence no transported into lumen. Hence Na+ no exchanged across, hence no osmotic effect to draw water in following sodium. This causes the mucus to become viscous and thick and unable to cough out

135
Q

Talk about cystic fibrosis in new BORNS?

A

In GI, the mucus is too viscous hence babies unable to pass first faeces - MECONIUM ILEUS

136
Q

How does the GI get affected by CF?

A

Mucus too viscous hence constipation and invagination of GI in adults

137
Q

How does CF affect the pancreas?

A

Reduces the secretions of the exocrine as little water makes secretions too thick hence block the duct. This becomes inflamed and fibrotic hence insufficient enzyme release hence malabsorption

138
Q

How does CF affect sweat?

A

The sweat is salty

139
Q

Where are glands derived from?

A

Epithelial cells

140
Q

What are the secretory products of glands stored in?

A

Secretory granules

141
Q

Where are goblet cells found?

A

Intestinal epithelia- Jejunum

Lining the ducts of simple tubular in large intestine - the crypts of Lieberkühns

142
Q

What are simple glands?

A

Single unbranched ducts, secretory part of simple glands can be
Straight, branched or coiled

143
Q

How many parotid glands are there?

A

2

144
Q

What type of gland is parotid?

A

Compound with enzyme secretion stored as zymogen granules in acinar cells

145
Q

What surrounds large multicellular glands?

A

Connective tissue capsule

146
Q

What is the septa?

A

Subdivides glands into lobes

147
Q

What is released from the endocrine gamma cells of pancreas?

A

Somatostatin

Inhibits contractions of GI and gall bladder smooth muscle

148
Q

Structure of Golgi?

A

Stacks of disc-shaped cisternae with one side flattered and other concave. There are swellings in edges

149
Q

Function of Golgi?

A

Sorting into different compartments
Packaging through content condensation
Glycosylation - adding sugars
Transport

See MGD Protein Processing

150
Q

Where do the products transport to?

A

Secretory vesicles
Retained for lysosomes or entering plasma membrane

See MGD Protein Processing

151
Q

Importance of glycocalyx?

A

Adhesion to substrate and neighbouring cells
Communication
Contact inhibition of movement and division
Mobility of cells
Increases specificity

152
Q

What cells do not contain nucleus?

A

Erythrocytes
Stratum corneum
Lens fibre cells

153
Q

Replication of peroxisomes?

A

Self-replicating but no genome of their own

154
Q

What type of connective tissue is the lamina propria?

A

Loose ct

155
Q

What epithelium is the anus?

A

Stratified non-keratinised squamous

ToB (7 decks)

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