Social and Cultural basis of behavior

Question 1

_________

refers to characteristics such as personality traits, motives, and attitudes.

Answer 1

Dispositional attribution

Question 2

_________ refers to social norms, external pressures, random chance, acts of God,
etc.

Answer 2

Situational attribution

Question 3

Heider explained that we tend to overestimate dispositional factors and underestimate
situational factors, which is known as the _________________.

Answer 3

fundamental attribution error

Question 4

__________ describes how people identify explanations of people’s personal characteristics from behavioral evidence.
For example, a correspondent inference would be to attribute an individual’s frequent
anger outburst to an underlying stable trait within the person

Answer 4

Correspondent inference theory (Jones and Davis)

Question 5

__________which contends
that we assess similarities (covariation) across situations to help us make causal
attributions in a rational and logical fashion. Covariation of behavior is assessed
using three types of information: consensus information—how other people act in
the same situation and with the same stimulus; distinctiveness information—how
similarly people act in different situations toward different stimuli; and consistency
information—how frequently people perceive the same stimuli and respond
the same.

Answer 5

covariation model of attribution (Kelly)

Question 6

The _______ effect occurs when we attribute dispositional factors to
other people’s behavior while attributing situational factors to our behavior. For
example, when an individual gets a poor grade on a test, we tend to attribute internal
factors such as laziness or failure to study. Alternatively, if we get a poor grade
we tend to attribute it to situational factors that justify the outcome. For example,
the test covered materials that were not addressed in the study guides.

Answer 6

actor–observer

Question 7

The _______ is the tendency to attribute dispositional factors for success and external, uncontrollable factors for failure. Sometimes called the self-enhancing bias. individualist cultures tend to engage in this bias more than collectivist cultures.

Answer 7

self-serving bias

Question 8

_______ theory posits
that attraction is maximized when an individual’s evaluation of a person is at first
negative and then changes to positive.

Answer 8

Gain–loss

Question 9

_______ theory suggests that attraction
occurs when the relationship’s rewards exceed its costs and when the rewards
and costs are reciprocal. People are likely to remain in a relationship when the
rewards outweigh the costs and leave a relationship when the costs exceed the
rewards.

Answer 9

Social exchange

Question 10

________ also focuses on relationship rewards and costs but suggests
that perceptions of equity in a relationship are more important than the magnitude
of costs and rewards.

Answer 10

Equity theory

Question 11

____________hypothesis proposes that aggression is the result of frustration,
which is produced whenever the ability to achieve a desired goal is blocked
(Dollard et al., 1939). The objective of aggression is to move the block, but if the
block cannot be removed, then aggression may be directed on another object.

Answer 11

frustration–aggression

Question 12

________ (1971) suggested that frustration creates a
readiness for aggression; however, expression of aggression requires both anger
arousal and the presence of external aggressive cues.

Answer 12

Berkowitz

Question 13

________ theory states that aggressive behaviors arise through the observation of others.
Research has supported social learning of aggression (e.g., Bobo doll studies;
Bandura, 1983).

Answer 13

social learning

Question 14

__________
refers to the tendency of people to act aggressively when they believe their actions
are anonymous.

Answer 14

Deindividuation

Question 15

the majority of studies conclude that

viewing violence _________ aggression.

Answer 15

increases

Question 16

The _________ theory suggests that altruism exists when benefits outweigh cost.

Answer 16

social exchange

Question 17

The __________ hypothesis suggests that altruism is evoked by the desire to
help someone who is suffering. Feelings of concern for the other person are contrasted
with personal distress, which leads people to act to reduce the negative
emotions, which are experienced when suffering is witnessed.

Answer 17

empathy–altruism

Question 18

________ more likely occurs when the point of view is consistent, flexible, clear, and aligned
with current social trends. Maass and Clark (1988) found that influence is more
likely to occur when the majority or minority are a part of the “in-group” as influence
is more likely among those who are similar.

Answer 18

Minority influence

Question 19

____________ provides a framework for understanding outcomes in
social situations. This theory posits that the effect of any information source
on an individual will increase with three factors: strength of the source of
the impact, immediacy of the event, and the number of sources imposing the
impact.

Answer 19

Social impact theory

Question 20

_______ (Lewin, 1936) states that behavior is affected by both the person and concurrently the environment he or she is in, although their
relative importance is different in different cases. Field theory was applied to a
number of inter- and intrapersonal behaviors, including conflict, group dynamics,
and leadership

Answer 20

Field theory

Question 21

_________ conflict occurs when an individual must choose
between two equally attractive or positive goals. This type of conflict
tends to be the easiest to resolve because both outcomes are appealing.

Answer 21

Approach–approach

Question 22

_____________ conflict occurs when an individual must choose
between two equally unattractive or negative goals. This type of conflict
is generally difficult to resolve and often leads to inaction, indecision, and
withdrawal from the situation.

Answer 22

Avoidance–avoidance

Question 23

_________ conflict occurs when a single goal has both attractive
and unattractive qualities. Individuals experiencing this conflict often
feel increased avoidance as they move toward a goal and conversely experience
increased desire toward the goal as they decide to move away
from it.

Answer 23

Approach–avoidance

Question 24

________ conflict occurs when choosing between two
goals that both have attractive and unattractive qualities. This tends to be
the most difficult conflict to resolve and often results in moving between
two alternatives.

Answer 24

Double approach–avoidance

Question 25

The _______ hypothesis suggests that differential effects of crowding occur because crowds increase positive experiences and situations and also make unpleasant experiences more negative (Deaux & Wrightsman, 1988). An individual’s need for personal space also influences the effects of crowding.

Answer 25

density intensity

Question 26

_______________ is the shared values, beliefs, and perceptions held by employees within an organization. It has been linked to high levels of job performance, satisfaction, and organizational commitment. Schein (1992)

Answer 26

Organizational culture

Question 27

_________ fit is the extent to which an individual’s values match those held by the organization’s culture (Greenberg & Barron, 1993). Good fit is achieved through the selection and socialization process of the organization and is associated with greater job satisfaction, motivation, organization commitment, and lower levels of turnover.

Answer 27

Person–organization

Question 28

________ identifies same-sex competition and preferential mate choices as the driving force for mating adaptations.

Answer 28

Darwin’s sexual selection

Question 29

Trivers added _______ theory that posits that animals are most selective of mates when the investment in offspring is the greatest. Females were identified as having the greatest investment.

Answer 29

parental investment

Question 30

The ___ is present at birth and operates on the pleasure principle. It consists of both life (e.g., self-preservation and sexual gratification/libido) and death (e.g., destruction, anger, and aggression/thanatos) instincts. The id is also thought to be responsible for the primary process of thinking and basic instincts.

Answer 30

id

Question 31

The ____ strives to mediate the conflicting demands of the id and reality and defer gratification until appropriate

Answer 31

ego

Question 32

the _________ emerges and is an internalization of society’s values and standards conveyed to a child through reward and punishment. The _________ attempts to permanently block the id’s socially unacceptable drives and is driven by concepts of right and wrong

Answer 32

super ego

Question 33

___________________ posits that: By 3 years, a child develops a permanent sense of self and object, also known as object constancy, and is able to perceive others as both separate and related.

Answer 33

Object relations theory (Klein)

Question 34

_________ conceptualize personality as a consequence of both the conscious and the unconscious mind. The conscious mind is orientated toward the external world. It is governed by the ego and is representative of individual thoughts, feelings, ideas, perceptions, and memories. The unconscious mind contains both the personal and collective unconscious. The personal unconscious comprises experiences that were once recalled, but are now repressed and forgotten. The collective unconscious consists of hidden memories that are passed down from one generation to the next.

Answer 34

Jungian Theories

Question 35

The ____________ Type Indicator grew | out of Jung’s personality theory

Answer 35

Myers–Briggs

Question 36

_______ theory (originally called Individual Psychology) postulates that basic mistakes originating from faulty perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs lead to myths, which strongly influence personality. Self-defeating perceptions and feelings of inferiority develop during childhood as the result of real or perceived biological, psychological, or social weakness.

Answer 36

Adlerian

Question 37

Thus, birth order is an important component of _______ theory and he identified five psychological positions from which children view life: oldest, second of only two, middle, youngest, and only. A healthy style of life includes goals that reflect optimism, confidence, entail contributions to the welfare of others, and community feeling (i.e., social interest and a sense of being connected to humanity). An unhealthy (mistaken) style of life includes goals reflecting self-centeredness, competition, and striving for personal power.

Answer 37

Adler's

Question 38

________ theory hypothesizes that an illness or personality disruption is the result of unmet developmental needs. This theory emphasizes the parent’s ability to provide a child with factors that lead to a cohesive sense of self or “healthy narcissism.” Key factors in healthy personality development include empathy and optimal frustration.

Answer 38

Self psychology

Question 39

________ approaches: most emphasize subjectivity and self-reflection, particularly the importance of choice and self-determination. The existential view of the mind is based on the principle that humans are alone in the world yet long to be connected with others.

Answer 39

humanistic and existential

Question 40

____identified anxiety arising when individuals are confronted with normal life experiences, including death, isolation, meaninglessness, and freedom. An individual’s response to these four concerns may be functional or dysfunctional, as existentialists believe that every individual has a capacity of choice and direction in his or her life. A healthy personality is able to integrate these components, whereas an unhealthy personality becomes overwhelmed by either freedom or limitations and is unable to balance the realities of living.

Answer 40

Yalom

Question 41

_______believed that individuals have an inherent need for positive regard from others they depend on. In order to grow, self must remain unified and respond to environmental demands as a whole.

Answer 41

Rogers (humanistic, person-centered)

Question 42

Rogers identified two parts of the self that develop over time: the _________________. The ideal self is how the person would like to be and the self-concept is how the person views him- or herself.

Answer 42

ideal self and the self-concept

Question 43

_______ theories postulate that personality consists of self and self-image. The self is the creative aspect of personality that promotes individuals’ inherent tendency for self-actualization (ability to live a fully integrated life). On the other hand, the self-image is the “darker side” of personality.

Answer 43

Gestalt

Question 44

______ emphasized choice and personal responsibility, although also including the social circumstance as important. There is often a balance that needs to be created between personal needs and values that are taken due to environmental demands.

Answer 44

Perls

Question 45

An _______ is a value that is | not assimilated into the self and creates conflict within the personality.

Answer 45

introject

Question 46

_______ developed operant theory known as radical behaviorism. He believed children do bad things because the behavior obtains attention that serves as a reinforcer. The three term contingency model or “Stimulus–Response–Consequence Model” was created as a method for analyzing behavior.

Answer 46

Skinner

Question 47

_____ therapy was developed by Glasser and is often categorized as a form of cognitive behavioral therapy. This theory proposes that human behavior is purposeful and originates from within the individual rather than external forces. There are several basic innate needs: four psychological (belonging, power, freedom, and fun) and one physical (survival) needs

Answer 47

Reality

Question 48

________ defined central traits as basic aspects of someone’s personality, whereas secondary traits are less important. Cardinal traits are the characteristics by which an individual may be recognized. In recent years, there has been a shift to studying group statistics (nomothetic) rather than individual (idiographic) traits.

Answer 48

Allport

Question 49

_________ theories of personality combine elements of both psychodynamic and cognitive behavioral theories. The common theme in these approaches is the focus on elements external to the individual (e.g., environment and other people) as largely contributing to behavior rather than aspects of personality. Therefore the social environment, both personal relationships and larger social systems, is of tantamount importance. Often the person’s self is defined by various interactions, as noted in the work of Sullivan.

Answer 49

Interpersonal and systematic

Question 50

______ (2001) provides the ADDRESSING acronym (see Table 3.1) to guide understanding of potential areas of holding or not holding privilege within the American power system.

Answer 50

Hays

Question 51

``` Holding privilege (regardless of being aware or unaware) may lead to “_________.” ```

Answer 51

ethnocentric | monoculturalism

Question 52

______ (1998) ethnocentric monoculturalism: belief in superiority, belief in the inferiority of others, power to impose standards, manifestation in institutions, and the invisible veil (i.e., assumption that everyone experiences reality and truth). These components reinforce prejudice and discrimination and lead to labeling individuals in nondominant groups as being the ones with problems.

Answer 52

Sue (et al.)

Question 53

______ psychology is used to imply a worldwide scope. International psychology is used when discussing differences among nations. _________ psychology is used to refer to differences among cultures (regardless of within or outside nations).

Answer 53

Global | Cross-Cultural

Question 54

________. The first version of the model describes a shift from Black self-hatred to Black self-acceptance, which occurs through five stages of identity development: pre-encounter, encounter, immersion– emersion, internalization, and internalization–commitment

Answer 54

Identity Development Model

Question 55

Racial identity ______ is the extent to which an individual’s race is currently a relevant part of his or her self-concept.

Answer 55

Racial identity salience is the extent to which an individual’s race is currently a relevant part of his or her self-concept.

Question 56

Sue et al. (1997) highlighted the use of racial __________ or “brief and commonplace daily verbal, behavioral, or environmental indignities, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative racial slights and insults toward people of color.”

Answer 56

microaggressions

Question 57

Berry et al. (1987) proposed four categories of _________status: Integration: A person maintains his or her own (minority) culture and also incorporates many aspects of the dominant culture. Assimilation: A person relinquishes his or her culture and accepts majority culture. Separation: A person withdraws from the dominant culture and accepts his or her own culture. Marginalization: A person does not identify with either his or her own culture or the majority culture.

Answer 57

Acculturation

Question 58

________ communication is grounded in the situation, depends on group understanding, and relies heavily on nonverbal cues. This type of communication helps to unify cultures and changes slowly.

Answer 58

High-Context; typical of diverse groups in the USA

Question 59

__________ communication depends on the explicit, verbal part of a message. It can change quickly and easily and is a less unifying form of communication. Low-context communication is characteristic of Euro-American cultures

Answer 59

Low-context

Question 60

The __________ involves estimating the likelihood of an event by comparing it to an existing prototype that already exists in our minds. This prototype is what we think is the most relevant or typical example of a particular event or object.

Answer 60

representativeness heuristic

Question 61

The ____________, also known as availability bias, is a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method or decision

Answer 61

availability heuristic

Question 62

The __________ is a psychological heuristic, or simplified mental strategy, according to which people determine the likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to picture the event mentally.

Answer 62

simulation heuristic

Question 63

________ is a cognitive heuristic where a person starts off with an initial idea and adjusts their beliefs based on this starting point. Anchoring and adjustment have been shown to produce erroneous results when the initial anchor deviates from the true value.

Answer 63

Anchoring and adjustment

Question 64

When provided with both individuating information, which is specific to a certain person or event, and base rate information, which is objective, statistical information, we tend to assign greater value to the specific information and often ignore the base rate information altogether

Answer 64

Base Rate Fallacy

Question 65

the tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one's existing beliefs or theories.

Answer 65

confirmation bias

Question 66

___________ is the phenomenon of perceiving a relationship between variables (typically people, events, or behaviors) even when no such relationship exists. ... This phenomenon is one way stereotypes form and endure.

Answer 66

illusory correlation

Question 67

_____________ also known as consensus bias, is a pervasive cognitive bias that causes people to “see their own behavioral choices and judgments as relatively common and appropriate to existing circumstances”.[1] In other words, they assume that their personal qualities, characteristics, beliefs, and actions are relatively widespread through the general population.

Answer 67

false consensus effect

Question 68

___________ also known as the Monte Carlo fallacy or the fallacy of the maturity of chances, is the erroneous belief that if a particular event occurs more frequently than normal during the past it is less likely to happen in the future (or vice versa), when it has otherwise been established that the probability of such events does not depend on what has happened in the past.

Answer 68

Gambler's fallacy

Question 69

Schachter concluded that, in anxiety-arousing conditions, social comparison is a more potent cause of _____________ than relief from discomfort and that the a

Answer 69

affiliation

Question 70

This ______ effect is most likely to occur when the person's change in opinion is gradual and clearly reflects a true "change of heart" (Aronson & Linder, 1965).

Answer 70

gain-loss

Question 71

The multifaceted nature of the self-concept has been offered as one explanation for the ___________also known as the Forer effect), which is the tendency for people to accept vague or general descriptions as accurate descriptions of themselves. In studies on the Barnum effect, participants are given a general description in the form of a personal horoscope or a handwriting or personality analysis.

Answer 71

Barnum effect

Question 72

Daryl Bern's (1972) ____________ theory proposes that, when internal cues are insufficient or difficult to interpret, people acquire information about themselves by observing their external behaviors and/or the context in which those behaviors occur.

Answer 72

self-perception; supported by epinepherine studies (looking to others to see how they feel)

Question 73

Additional evidence for self-perception theory is provided by studies on the ________________ hypothesis, which predicts that, when an external reward is given to a person for performing an intrinsically rewarding activity, the person's intrinsic interest in the activity decreases.

Answer 73

overjustification; e.g., being rewarded for drawing with markers versus not.

Question 74

According to ________________ theory (Festinger, 1954 ), people have an innate drive to evaluate their own opinions and behaviors: and, in the absence of objective standards, they do so by comparing their opinions and behaviors to those of other people.

Answer 74

social comparison

Question 75

_______ theory (Swann, Pelham, & Krull, 1989) predicts that, once a person's self-concept is formed, the person seeks to maintain it by using cognitive and behavioral strategies that are designed to obtain information that is consistent with that self-concept. For example, people tend to recalI and pay attention to information that confirms their self-concepts and prefer to interact With others who provide information that confirms their self-views

Answer 75

Self-verification

Question 76

________ (Jones & Berglas, 1978) occurs when people attempt to protect their self-esteem and public image by engaging in behaviors that will provide them with an excuse for an anticipated failure. For example, a student who is worried about failing an important exam might stay up the night before the exam partying With friends instead of studying so that, if she obtains a low score on the test, she can attribute it to the party rather than her lack of ability or knowledge.

Answer 76

Self-handicapping

Question 77

According to these investigators. __________ reduces the negative effects of stressful life events by facilitating transformational coping. which involves directly altering those events or thinking about them more optimistically and using social support and other resources.

Answer 77

hardiness

Question 78

__________ occurs when the person changes her behavior because she wants to be liked by or identified with another person. In this case, behavior change reflects a private change in opinion or attitude, but the change is maintained only as long as the person continues to like or admire the influencing agent.

Answer 78

Identification

Question 79

____________ occurs when the individual changes her behavior because she actually (privately) accepts the beliefs or attitudes of another person.

Answer 79

Internalization

Question 80

Comply with ________ for informational reasons (e.g., because the minority has caused them to re-evaluate their beliefs). Consequently, the result of ________influence is likely to be a real change in attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors rather than mere compliance, which often occurs when change is due to majority influence.

Answer 80

minority

Question 81

_______________ predicts that, when an attempt at social influence causes a person to feel a loss of personal freedom, the person may respond by acting in a way that is the opposite of what is desired

Answer 81

``` psychological reactance (e.g., ESFU chant at football games) ```

Question 82

• Coercive: The influencing agent has control over punishments. • Reward: The influencing agent has control over valued rewards and resources. • Expert: The influencing agent is believed to have superior ability, skills, or knowledge. • Referent: The target person is attracted to, likes, or identifies with the influencing agent. • Legitimate: The target person believes the influencing agent has legitimate authority. • Informational: The influencing agent possesses specific information that is needed by the target person.

Answer 82

Six bases of social power

Question 83

A person's ability to influence someone else is often the result of two or more bases of power, and the more varied an individual's sources of power, the greater ability he/she has to influence others. For example, there is evidence that supervisors and mental health consultants are most successful when they combine expert and referent power (e.g., Martin, 1978). The bases of social power have also been linked to different effects: Reward and coercive power lead to the most superficial response (compliance); referent power is more likely to produce identification; and expert, legitimate, and informational power are most likely to produce internalization.

Answer 83

Bases of power

Question 84

The __________ model is a theory of persuasion that suggests that there are two different ways people can be persuaded of something, depending on how invested they are in a topic.

Answer 84

elaboration likelihood

Question 85

longitudinal study found that the extent to which children watched violent television shows at age eight predicted their criminality and aggressiveness as adults even when socioeconomic status, parents' childrearing practices, and other relevant variables were statistically controlled.

Answer 85

Media violence studies; effects of pornography, especially violence in porn, found similar results

Question 86

Zimbardo's ( 1970) ________ model proposes that people are more likely to act aggressively or In other antisocial ways when they believe they can act anonymously.

Answer 86

deindividuation

Question 87

The impact of social roles on aggression was demonstrated in Zimbardo 's (1972) _________ in which Stanford University undergraduate volunteers (who had been screened for emotional stability) were randomly assigned to the role of prisoner or prison guard. Prisoners were .. arrested" by the Palo Alto police, booked at the police station, and taken

Answer 87

prison study

Question 88

posits that aggressive behavior decreases arousal and decrease the need to act aggressively in the future; however, this theory has largely been disproven.

Answer 88

catharsis hypothesis

Question 89

__________, which is characterized by a high degree of rigidity, cynicism, commitment to conventional values, and intolerance of ambiguity; a willingness to submit to authority; and a tendency to rigidly stereotype members of minority groups.

Answer 89

authoritarian personality

Question 90

_________: Sherifs ( 1966) realistic conflict theory describes prejudice as the result of intergroup conflicts caused by competition over power and limited resources. From this perspective, prejudice arises when a group's goals can be achieved only at the expense of another group's needs or desires.

Answer 90

Intergroup Conflict

Question 91

ugh maintaining a positive _________ has benefits for the individual and society (e.g., by contributing to personal and collective self-esteem), it can also lead to prejudice and discrimination against members of other groups.

Answer 91

group identity

Question 92

______ is the acceptance, by marginalized racial populations, of the negative societal beliefs and stereotypes about themselves" (Williams & Williams-Morris, 2000, p. 255).

Answer 92

Internalized racism

Question 93

In response to survey questions, _______ usually reject obvious forms of prejudice and discrimination but oppose busing, welfare, affirmative action, and other programs designed to assist those who have been the target of discrimination.

Answer 93

symbolic racists

Question 94

the introduction of superordinate goals that could be achieved only when members of both groups worked cooperatively - was successful: Following their cooperative efforts to achieve these goals, members of both groups displayed less hostility toward one another and many developed friendships that crossed group lines.

Answer 94

Cooperation as studied in the Robber's Cave exp.

Question 95

studies found that the ________________ not only reduces ethnic stereotyping and increases students· attraction to members of different ethnic groups but also enhances students' cooperation, self-esteem, and attitudes toward school. Also. while the benefits of the jigsaw method for academic achievement tend to be more pronounced for minority students, White students do as well as (or a little better than) they do in a traditional classroom.

Answer 95

Jigsaw method

Question 96

Results indicated that bystanders were less likely to intervene in the presence of others than when alone and that the greater the number of bystanders, the greater the bystander apathy.

Answer 96

Bystander apathy; Kitty Genovese case

Question 97

Bystanders conclude that assistance is unnecessary because others are not offering assistance.

Answer 97

Pluralistic Ignorance

Question 98

Bystanders do not help because they fear social disapproval.

Answer 98

Evaluation Apprehension

Question 99

Bystanders do not accept personal responsibility for | helping because they assume that others will offer help.

Answer 99

Diffusion of Responsibility

Question 100

"every psychological event depends on the state of the person and at the same time on the environment, although their relative importance is different in different cases"

Answer 100

Field theory, Lewin

Question 101

__________, which proposes that memory tends to be better for uncompleted tasks than for completed tasks because uncompleted tasks create greater .. psychic tension." Note that research on the _________ suggests that it is most likely to occur in non-stressful conditions

Answer 101

Zeigarnik effect