Social class and Stratification Flashcards
(48 cards)
Definition of social class
social class refers to stratification of different of different groups based on power ,economic wealth ,social wealth and cultural wealth.
Goldthorpe seven point class scale
Golthorpe developed a more sociologically relevant scale intended to measure the variables such as employment relationship ,conditions of work and life chances rather than simply on income and the nature of work and the nature of work The first group of this scale as high grade professionals this groups involving those that exercise authority in 1972 this was 13.6% of the population and the last group is those who are semi skilled manual workers in 1972 this represent 23.5% of the population
More about the Hope -goldthorpe scale
Goldthorpe created a more sociologically relevant scale are that has proved very popular with social researcher. Goldthorpe recognized the growth of the middle class occupations and especially the self employed and based his classification on the concept of market position he took account of work or employment relations . Hold-Goldthorpe scale also acknowledged that both and non -manual groups ,ay share similar experience of work
Great British Class survey (2011)
Savage et al: Large scale sociological study aiming to redefine social class in the Uk by considering factors beyond traditional occupations-based measures. Takes in to account cultural and social capital , as well as economic capital
Aims Of research-n response to a re-emergence of interest in social class structures in the UK, Savage et al, argued that a different form of analysis was required of traditional social class definitions. Traditional definitions were focused on occupations such as the Nuffield class schema (National Statistics Socio-Economic Classification) developed in the 1970s which divided workers into ‘labour’ and ‘service’ occupations. Savage et al argued that the definitions of class in the 21stcentury needed to incorporate the different forms of capital outlined by Pierre Bourdieu in Distinction(1984). Using a form of ‘latent class analysis’, (a method of measuring categorised behaviours linked to social class groups) Savage et al analysed the results of the 2011 Great British Class Survey which was designed to incorporate elements of economic, cultural and social capital to differentiate between different social backgrounds. There included measures of social networks, of how leisure time was spent, musical tastes, tastes in cuisine and economic factors such as house price and savings.
Economic Observatory (2021)
In 2018 , only, 57% of children with access to free school meals reaced the expected levels of development compared with 74% of children who were not entitled
A report from the sutton trust found that 45% of low income children are read to daily at age three compared to 65% and 78% of high income children respectively
Higher academic success rates :nearly rate of students from independent schools got an A and A* in their A-levels
Social Mobility Definition
Social mobility refers to the idea of people moving up or down as social hierarchy. People are able to shift between classes
Intergenerational mobility and intragenerational mobility
Intergenerational mobility is the social movement or mobility occurring from one generation to the next
Intragenerational mobility refers to social movement
Oxford Mobility Study (Goldthorpe 1972)
Goldthorpe found that there are two types oof mobility : absolute mobility and relative mobility
Absolute mobility refers to the overall numbers in percentage of individuals from specific origins reaching particular class and relative mobility is the relative chance that a person from a particular class has moving upwards or downwards
Goldthorpe argues that an increase in absolute mobility is not necessary evidence of a more meritocratic society this is because there have been changes in the economy and therefore , the occupations . the proportion of the working population in the service class
State of nation(2023)
By the age 11 eleven, less than half (46% of FSM pupils reach the standards expected for reading, writing and mathematics, compared to 68% of all other pupils.
Only 16% of those on free school meals attain at least two A levels compared to 39% of all other pupils.
Only 5% of disadvantaged young people enter the most selective HE institutions compared to the national average of 12% Once there, disadvantaged students are more likely to drop out than better-off peers (8.8% versus 6.3% overall).
The higher education application and admissions system remains too complex
Functionalist perspective on social class stratification - Durkheim
Durkheim claimed that all societies had a series of needs or functional prerequisites, which are necessary for it to operate smoothly. These prerequisites including a system for offering differential rewards based on the importance of the occupation to society. Durkheim further suggested that because of the existence of value consensus, society’s members would accept this hierarchy and the inevitable inequality that followed as the occupations which are ‘worth’ more to society are better rewarded. Durkheim claimed that individuals would accept that
different levels of ability, skills and experience would justify the fact that those at the top of the hierarchy would be better rewarded.
Durkheim was writing at a time when industrialisation had become established in westen Europe. He believed that society was by then largely based on achieved status though the division of labour. He characterised the hierarchy of occupations as being essential & beneficial for both society and its individual members.
Durkheim also emphasised the part played by individual’s aspirations whereby people would largely base these on their own individual level of skill, education, qualifications and experience, thus preventing resentment and jealousy. The role of achievement - thus maintaining the sense of fairness and acceptance - i.e. Meritocracy (note - Durkheim woul not have used this term as it
Functional perspective of stratification - spencer
Herbert Spencer and Social Darwinism philosopher, and biologist whose ideas significantly influenced the Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) was a prominent loth-century sociologist, development of sociology and the understanding of social stratification and inequality. Spencer’s work is often associated with functionalist
Spencer was deeply influenced by Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection, which he
perspectives, and he is known for his contributions to social Darwinism. applied to the social realm. He argued that societies. libe species, He argued that societies like species, evolve and adapt over time
Spencer’s View on Natural Selection:
In Spencer’s view, individuals and societies that are better adapted to their of social evolution was foundational to his sociological thinking.
environments thrive, while those less adapted face challenges and decline. This concept
Social Darwinism:
Spencer’s application of Darwin’s principles to society gave rise to the concept of “social Darwinism.” He believed that just as natural selection led to the survival of the fittest in the animal kingdom, the same principle applied to human societies. According to Spencer, competition and struggle in society were necessary for progress and the improvement of the human race. He saw inequality as a natural outcome of this process, where some individuals and groups excelled while others lagged behind. These
ideas were racist and used to justify racism.
Functional perspectives on stratification-parsons
Talcott Parsons (1950s & 1960s):
Post-war America - ‘The American Dream’ - the revival of Functionalism
The “American Dream” is the idea that anyone (even those from low-income families) can experience upward social mobility if they work hard enough. This is often associated with a sequence of life events for an individual, including aspects such as getting a degree, a job and getting married. It is believed that many Americans can and should
aspire to this standard. This sequence of events is so synonymous with American culture that people may feel like a failure if they fail to achieve elements of it.
Talcott parsons used many of these ideas in his analysis of post-war American society. Aga the focus was on the way in which value consensus led to order, stability, and co-operation within society; the way in which members of society have a general agreement on the thi that are good and worthwhile. This then leads to systems of ‘ranking’ individuals
society based on those abilities that are felt to be important. For parsons this meant that stratification was inevitable in all societies, so those that are in positions of high status or power are deserving due to the common values of that society
Parsons strongly believed that those that perform successfully in terms of society’s values will be ranked highly and receive higher rewards than those lower down the system. Parsons wrote that American society valued individual achievement, efficiency and ‘productive power within the economy, part of what was to become known as the ‘American dream’. So, business leaders who have achieved their position through initiative, ability, endeavour, and ambition, deserve to be highly rewarded. Parsons did accept that this system was not utopian (there would be some ‘winners’ who display arrogance and an inevitable element of ‘sour grapes’ too) but these concerns were largely kept in check by value consensus. Although parsons emphasised the existence of interdependence between different workers, he suggested that the complexity of modern industrial society meant that there needed to be differentiation of leadership & authority, so that those co-ordinating the actions of others must have a different status than those being controlled.
Functional Perspective - Davis and Moore
Roles in society must be filled by those best able to perform them
In order to ensure meritocracy, roles must be filled by those most capable of fulfilling them
The best positions require the best candidates
People need the necessary training to be able to do the job (function of education)
It is important that people take their jobs seriously and do
Therefore…
Stratification is necessary to create competition so that only the most talented make it to the top
Stratification encourages people to work hard and to the best of their ability
High rewards for the most important positions attracts the best and compensates for sacrifices they make
High rewards motivate high performance, therefore unequal rewards are necessary
If you could get paid just as much without undergoing the training or without the hard work and effort or exceptional talent, people may make a rational decision to perform “easier” roles
Evaluation of Davis and Moore
Melvin Tumin argues thatThere is no objective way of measuring the functional importance of a job
D & M ignore the influence of power on the unequal distribution of rewards
The idea of talent is questionable – no evidence for the existence of ‘exceptional’ talents required for important positions
Training is not always a sacrifice, nor should it be compensated for throughout a whole working life
Inequality is not inevitable and can be dysfunctional
It can de-motivate and divide, creating disharmony and lack of stability
Unequal access to opportunities prevents true equality of opportunity
Inequality is divisive - it does not help promote social stability, but encourages prejudice, hostility and distrust
New Right Perspective on stratification- Saunders
Britain is “unequal but fair” (1996)
There is an unequal distribution of talent and ability, but more or less equality of opportunity.
Middle class children do better in education and employment because they have brighter parents’ and they work harder (genetic and cultural advantages).
Saunders and three types of equality
3 types of Equality
Legal equality-refers to the laws that give members of society equal rights
Equality of opportunity-everybody starts at the same point, but there are legitimate inequalities of outcome (finishing times). Supported by giving everybody basic rights to education and health in childhood, but incentivising performance through low direct tax. Everyone has an equal chance at being successful or unsuccessful.
Equality of outcome- everybody gets the same regardless of popularity, talent or (within reason) conformism. Promoted by wage controls, progressive tax and generous welfare provision. For instance, some policies of positive discrimination may be aimed at recruiting more women/ minority ethnic groups.
Saunders- The reality
Saunders says equality of outcome is not desirable.
If everyone gets the same there would be no motivation for people to compete for jobs or work hard.
People would have to be forced to do less appealing jobs.
Essentially this is a criticism of Communism.
Saunders argues that we “live in a remarkably fluid and open society”
Inequality and competition benefits society as a whole, encouraging entrepreneurs that invent things, set up businesses etc
Competition raises the quality of goods and services and drives down costs.
He believes Britain is more or less meritocratic, with opportunity for social mobility
Criticisms of new Right- Tumin
Rather than acting as a motivating factor Tumin argues that unequal rewards can act as a barrier to motivation- affecting peoples’ aspirations, especially with regards to education.
Those who occupy the top positions also erect obstacles to prevent others reaching the top, consequently the notion of meritocracy is a nonsense. (elite self recruitment, glass ceiling racial and sexual discrimination). - Private school system
Inequality is divisive - it does not help promote social stability, but encourages prejudice, hostility and distrust.
Criticisms of saunders- Marshall and swift
Marshall and Swift (1993) have presented a detailed critique of Saunders work
They argue that Saunders ignores the evidence against meritocracy in Britain
Relative social mobility (the chance a person has of moving upwards or downwards) has declined in this country.
Those born in 1970 have less chance of experiencing mobility than their parents.
Saunders’s view that capitalist societies are less repressive than socialist ones is a vast generalisation
Early capitalism, South Africa, Chile etc were all free market capitalist economies and all very repressive.
Marxist perspective on stratification - means of production
Marx saw society as based on conflict between a ruling class and a subject class
In capitalist societies he referred to these classes as the bourgeoisie and the proletariat
Bourgeoisie- those who own the means of production become the ruling class in western industrial societies
Proletariat- the workers who sell their labour to the ruling class in return for a wage
The wealth and power of the bourgeoisie is maintained through the exploitation of the proletariat
Marx believed the only way to overcome this would be through a worker’s revolution which would lead to a communist society
Alienation
Alienation:
He argued that in a capitalist system, workers become disconnected from the products of their labor and from the labor itself. They are alienated from the process because they don’t have control over what they produce or how they produce it, and they are alienated from the products because those products belong to the capitalist class that owns the means of production. In essence, they are “auctioning off” their labour without a direct connection to the fruits of their labour.
necessity of work
Necessity of Work: Marx points out that workers engage in labour not for its own sake but out of necessity. They work to secure the means of life, which includes the basic necessities like food, shelter, and clothing.
infrastucture and superstucture
The mode of production is the economic base- the economic system of a particular society
Marx called this the infrastructure
The infrastructure (economic system) shapes the superstructure (everything else in society)
In other words, the economic system shapes the rest of society!
So for Marx, in a capitalist society the education system is driven by the need for a well-disciplined workforce
Neo-Marxist perspective of stratification - Gramsci
He developed the idea of hegemony or ideological and moral leadership of society, to explain how the ruling class maintains its position. Hegemony = ideological power of the ruling classes
Hegemony (from Latin meaning ‘power’) is the subtle but pervasive way in which ruling classes establish and maintain their dominance over society. Unlike coercion or force, hegemony operates through culture, ideology, and consent. It is the ability of the ruling class to shape the norms, values, and beliefs of a society to align with their interests. This is achieved by controlling institutions like education, media, and religion, making the prevailing ideology seem natural and legitimate.
