Social Psychology Flashcards
(218 cards)
1
Q
Causal attributions
A
- inferences that people draw about the causes of their own behavior and others behavior
2
Q
Dispositional
A
- internal attributions
3
Q
Situational
A
External attributions
4
Q
Optimistic explanatory style
A
- Attribute negative outcomes of actions to external, unstable, and specific factors
5
Q
Pessimistic explanatory style
A
-attribute bx too internal, stable, and global factors
6
Q
The fundamental attribution error
A
- The tendency to overestimate the role of disposition (internal) factors into underestimate the role of situational (external) factors when making attributions about other’s behavior
- affected by culture
7
Q
MILLER (1984)
A
- North American adults and adolescents made more dispositional. Attributions
- Asian Indians made more situational. Attributions
8
Q
Actor- observer effect
A
- involves behavior of ourselves and others
- The tendency to attribute our own behavior to situational (external) factors and attribute others behavior to dispositional (internal) factors
9
Q
Self-Serving bias
A
- attributions about our own behavior
- tendency to attribute our own behavior to dispositional (internal) factors when it has desirable outcomes and situational (external) factors when it has undesirable outcomes
10
Q
The ultimate attribution error
A
- used to explain prejudice of members of a majority group towards a minority group
- Attribute negative behaviors of own group to situational (external) factors and the negative behavior of the out group to to dispositional (internal)
factor - regarding positive behavior, attribute members of owned group’s behavior to dispositional factors (internal) members of out groups behavior to situational factors
11
Q
Group attribution error
A
- attributions about a group and its
Members - I believe in individuals, group beliefs, attitudes and preferences reflective of the whole group
12
Q
Covariation model
A
- people make attributions about another’s behavior by considering consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness
- when consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness are all high, they’re more likely to make external (situation al)attribution
13
Q
Automatic processing
A
- fast, and efficient
- operates outside of conscious awareness
- can lead to errors and biases that affect decision and judgment
14
Q
Controlled processing
A
- slower and effortful
- operates with conscious awareness
15
Q
Confirmation bias
A
- tendency to seek and pay attention to info that confirms our attitudes and beliefs and ignore info that refutes them
16
Q
Self-Verification theory
A
- people seek feedback from and prefer to spend time with others who confirm their self-concepts
17
Q
Illusory correlation
A
- overestimate the relationship between two variables that are not are only slightly related
18
Q
Base rate fallacy
A
- tendency to ignore or underuse base rate information and be influenced by distinctive features of a case being judged
- example. Jury’s more likely to be persuaded by anecdotal case histories then probabilistic base rate info
19
Q
False consensus effect
A
- The tendency to overestimate to the extent which other people share our opinions, values, and beliefs
- found to affect judgments in a variety of situations
- students were told they had either passed or failed. A bogus social sensitivity test. When asked to estimate how other students would do, those who were told they failed said most students would fail the test and
Those who were told they had passed said other students would pass the test
20
Q
Counterfactual thinking
A
- tendency to imagine what might have happened but didn’t
- can involve imagining either better or worse outcomes
- is most likely to occur when the outcome is personal significant and it’s relatively easy to imagine an alternative outcome
21
Q
Illusory control
A
- The illusion of control
- when people believe that they can influence events outside of their control.
- has been used to explain superstitious behavior that people believe will maximize their success
22
Q
When people believe blowing on a dice before throwing them will result in the desired numbers or using lucky numbers in a lottery
A
- illusion of control
23
Q
The spotlight effect
A
- Believe that more people take note of your actions and appearance then they actually do
- similar to Elkind’s imaginary audience characterized in adolescence and a result of renewed egocentrism
- common in people with social anxiety
24
Q
Think everyone is looking at you when you arrive late or eat alone in a restaurant
A
- The spotlight effect
25
Illusion of transparency
- overestimate the extent to which others can discern their internal States
26
When asked to drink unpleasant liquids while hiding their feelings of disgust subjects overestimated, how many observers would detect their true emotional state
- illusion of transparency
27
The hindsight bias
- tendency for people to inaccurately believe they predicted the event would occur or to overestimate the likelihood that they could have predicted that the event would occur
- linked to the need to see the world as predictable and orderly, and reconstructive memory processes which automatically update the information that was already stored
28
After a political election, study, participants memories of their own pre-election predictions about the percent of votes that the different political parties earned were closer to the actual percentages than their original predictions had been
- hindsight bias
29
The Sunk-Cost fallacy
- tendency for people to continue investing resources in an endeavor when they have already invested significant resources that have not produced desired outcomes or are not recoverable
- younger adults. More susceptible
-Concorde Fallacy
30
French and British governments continued funding the Concord, a supersonic plane long after it was clear that they would never recover the money they had already spent to develop it
- The sunk cost fallacy
31
Explanations for the sunk cost fallacy
- people don't want to be wasteful or they don't want to admit that their initial actions were a mistake
32
Heuristics
- mental shortcuts that provide quick estimates about the likelihood of certain events
- can be useful when it's necessary to make quick judgments but can lead to inaccurate conclusions
33
Representativeness heuristic
- when making judgments about the frequency or likelihood of an event, ignore the base rates and other important information and focus on to the extent of which the event resembles a prototype
34
When asked to judge whether a woman is more likely to be a librarian or elementary school teacher after being told she is friendly, but a little shy, tends to speak softly, and a conservative dresser, and keeps her house very clean, you assume she is a librarian because of the personal characteristics even though there are fewer librarians than elementary school teachers
- representativeness heuristic
35
Conjunction fallacy
- explained by the representativeness heuristic
- estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either happening alone
36
Availability? Crystal
- Base judgments about the likelihood of frequency of an event to occur on how easy it is to recall relevant examples of an event
37
Tendency to overestimate frequency of deaths due to shark attacks and plane crashes because they're they are highly memorable Even though they are uncommon
- availability? Heuristic
38
Anchoring and adjustment heuristic
- estimate the frequency of an event or other value by beginning with the starting point and then making an upward or downward adjustment?
39
When negotiating the price of a used bike at a garage style, the seller's initial price is a starting point and determines the size of the purchaser's counter offer
- anchoring and adjustment heuristic
40
Simulation heuristic
- judge the likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to imagine the event happening to us or others
- events more easily to imagine are judged to be more likely to occur
- affects how we feel or think others feel about the event
- when a negative event can be easily undone in imagination, the person is likely to have or predict another person will have a more extreme emotional reaction of that event
- requires counter factual thinking
41
Subjects told that two different people arrived 30 minutes late for their flight, but one missed their flight by 30 minutes because it left on time where the other missed their flight by 5 minutes because it was delayed by 25 minutes when the subjects were asked. Which person felt worse about missing the flight? Nearly all subjects said that the man who missed the flight by 5 minutes
- simulation heuristic
42
High consistency, consensus and distinctiveness
- external attribution about another's behavior
43
Low consensus and distinctiveness, consistency
- likely to make a internal attribution for others behavior
44
Early research on attitudes and behavior
- found a weak relationship
- attempted to use general attitudes to predict specific behaviors and not same level of specificity
45
Attitudes and behavior
- strength of relationship is affected by strength, accessibility and specificity of attitudes
46
Strength of attitudes
- better predictors of behavior when a person's attitude is strong
- attitudinal strength is greater when the person's attitude towards an issue is derived from direct experience and the issue is relevant to the person's self-interests
47
Accessibility
- More likely to predict behavior when the attitude towards an issue is easily accessible because the person is well informed about the issue or has been repeatedly asked about it
48
Specificity
- Link between attitudes and behavior is stronger when they are the same level of specificity
49
Theory of planned behavior
- The intention to perform a behavior is the best predictor of behavior
50
Factors that influence a person's behavior intention
- person's attitude towards a behavior
- what the person thinks others believes they should do
- The person's confidence and their ability to perform to behavior
51
Subjective norms
- A person believes other people think they should do
52
Perceived behavior control
- person's confidence and their ability to perform the behavior
53
Prototype/willingness model
- used primarily to predict health-related risk behaviors
- based on the assumption, there are two paths to engage in in a behavior, a reason path and a social reaction path
54
Reasoned path
- The result of a person's behavior intention
55
Social reaction path
- The result of a person's willingness to engage in a behavior in particular circumstances
56
Willingness according to prototype/willingness model
- depends on the person's perceived acceptability of a behavior which is in turn influenced by the person's prototype/ social image of people who engage in a behavior
57
Positive prototype
- More likely to engage in the behavior in social situations that are conducive with that behavior
58
Adolescents who have a positive image appears who use marijuana will be more willing than those who have a negative image to try marijuana at a party where some of their peers are smoking
- prototype/ willingness model
59
Health belief model
- beliefs, attitudes, and other factors that predict the likelihood that a person will engage in a behavior that reduces the risk of developing a disorder
- willingness can be increased by targeting these factors
- perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived benefits, perceived barriers, self-efficacy, and cues to action
60
perceived susceptibility
- The person's perceptions about their likelihood of developing a disorder
61
Perceived severity
- The person 's perceptions about the seriousness of consequences of developing the disorder
62
Perceived benefits
- The person's beliefs about the likelihood that taking action will reduce their vulnerability to the disorder
63
Perceived barriers
- The person's beliefs about the material and psychological cost of taking action
64
Self-Efficacy
- The confidence that they Have the ability to take action
65
Cues to action
- factors that motivate the person to act
66
Illness of a family member, advice from health providers, and mass media campaigns
- cues to action
67
Elaboration likelihood model
- persuasive message can be processed through the central or peripheral route
68
Central route
- High level of elaborative processing that involves thoughtful and careful evaluation of the message
- likely to be used when the person perceives the message to be personally relevant, has cognitive ability to process the message, and or is in a neutral or bad mood
69
Attitude change via central route
- depends on the strength of the argument presented in the message and is likely to be strong, enduring, and predictive of behavior
70
Peripheral route
- low level of elaboration and involves automatic evaluation of the message
- most likely to occur when the person perceives a message to be unimportant, does not have the cognitive ability to process the message, and or is in a good mood
71
Attitude change via the peripheral route
- depends on the peripheral cues
- likely to be weak, temporary, and not predictive of behavior
72
Peripheral cues
- source, message, and recipient factors that are not Central to the content of the message
73
Communicators attractiveness, likability, credibility, or celebrity, The length of the message, and the recipients reliance on heuristics
- peripheral cues
74
Social judgment theory
- effectiveness of a persuasive message depends on the person's current position on an issue
- distinguishes between three latitudes that represent different degrees of similarity between the person's position and a position advocated by the message
- latitude of acceptance
- latitude of rejection
- latitude of non-commitment
75
Latitude of acceptance
- positions the person finds acceptable because they're similar to their own position
76
Latitude of rejection
- positions a person finds unacceptable because they're extremely different from their positions
77
Latitude of non-commitment
- positions that the person will not automatically accept or reject but will consider because they are moderately different from their position
78
Latitudes
- The size of the latitude is affected by the person's ego involvement with the issue addressed by the message
- as a person's level of ego involvement increases the latitudes of acceptance and non-commitment becomes smaller and the latitude of rejection becomes larger
79
Balance theory
- aka P-0-X theory
- focuses on the relationships between people (P), another person(o), And an attitude object/event (x)
- relationships between the three can become balanced/ consistent or unbalanced/ inconsistent and because unbalanced states make people uncomfortable, they are motivated to establish balance
80
Patricia likes Oliver and country music and Oliver hates country music so Patricia is motivated to establish a balanced state by switching her attitude to not like Oliver or country music
- balance theory
81
Cognitive dissonance theory
- when people become aware of an inconsistency between two of their cognitions (attitudes, opinions, beliefs) or between a cognition and behavior, they experience a state of mental discomfort that they are motivated to relieve
- to relieve dissonance they replace or subtract a dissonant cognition, at a consonant cognition, increase the importance of a consonant cognition, or decrease the importance of a dissonant cognition
82
Self-Perception theory
- people learn about themselves in the same way they learn about others by observing their behaviors and circumstances in which those behaviors occur
- evidence is provided by research on the over justification effect
83
Over justification effect
- predicts that when people aren't externally reinforced for engaging in intrinsically rewarding behavior, their intrinsic motivation decreases
84
Kids who colored with felt tip markers were either rewarded or not rewarded for using the markers during free play.
- in a subsequent play. After rewards were no longer given to the previously rewarded children, they spent less time coloring with markers and rewarded children did, because the external reward reduced their intrinsic motivation
Self perception theory
85
Adolescent to a positive images of peers who are marijuana users will be more willing than those who have negative image to try marijuana at a party where some of their peers are smoking marijuana
Prototype/ willingness model
86
Persuasion
- researchers have identified a number of communicator, message, and recipient factors that affect the likelihood that a message will persuade recipients to change their attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors
87
Communicators
- More persuasive when are attractive, likable, And credible
88
Communicators and expertise
- are perceived as having expertise when they have adequate knowledge, skill, and experience
89
Communicators and worthiness
- consider trustworthy when are perceived as being fair, honest, and unbiased
- affected by communicator's intent
- More likely to be considered twice worthy when arguing against their own best interests or message is accidentally overheard
90
Sleeper effect
- people tend to remember the message but forget the source
91
Three factors that affect the persuasiveness of a message
- message discrepancy
- presentation order and timing
- fear arousal
92
Greatest amount of change
- moderate discrepancy between the recipient's current position and the position advocated by the message
93
Primacy effect
- when two sides are presented back to back and a period of time passes before recipients attitudes are assessed
- The side presented first has the greatest effect on attitudes
94
Recency effect
- period of time passes between presentation of two sides and a recipient's attitudes are assessed soon after the second presentation
- side presented second has the greatest impact
95
Fear arousal
- produce inconsistent results
- some findings indicate that moderate fear arousal is the most effective for producing change in attitudes and behaviors and others finding low or high arousal most effective
96
Overestimate the frequency of behaviors that are consistent with negative stereotypes of a certain minority group
Illusionary Correlation
97
Alpha strategies
- attempt to overcome resistance to persuasion by increasing approach forces
- involve providing reasons why change is desirable by maximizing the strength of the arguments presented in the message and using consensus information
98
Consensus information
- showing that the attitude, believe, or behavior advocated by the message is the most popular one
99
Omega strategies
- attempt to reduce or neutralize resistance by decreasing avoidance forces
- include addressing resistance by providing recipients with counter arguments to their concerns and using comparisons to make the position advocated by the persuasive message seem more desirable
100
Communicator (source) factors that make communicators seem more persuasive
- attractiveness
- likability
- credibility
101
Credibility
- according to research, it is most affected by the communicator's expertise and trustworthiness
- communicators are deemed to have expertise when they have adequate knowledge, skill, inexperience
102
Trustworthiness
- communicators are considered trustworthy when they are perceived as being fair, honest, unbiased
- affected by intent
- communicator is considered to be more trustworthy when they are arguing against their own best interests or their messages accidentally overheard
103
High credible communicators
- most effective
- But the different impact of high and low credible communicators on attitude change does not persist due to the sleeper effect
104
Message factors that affect persuasiveness
- message discrepancy
- message presentation order & time
- fear arousal
105
Relationship between attitude change and message discrepancy
- inverted U-Shape
- greatest amount of change being elicited when there's a moderate discrepancy between the recipient's current position and the position advocated by the message
106
Communicators credibility , attitude change in message discrepancy
- inverted u-shape for low credible communicators but a linear relationship for high credible communicators
- The amount of attitude change increases as the degree of discrepancy increases
107
Meta-Analysis on fear arousal
- found that the effect of fear arousal depends on certain conditions and that appeals to fear are most effective when they:
- attempt to arouse a relatively high level of fear
- including efficacy message that ensures recipients that they are capable of taking the recommended action and or that performing the recommended action will have desirable outcomes
- describe the negative consequences and risks for those consequences of actions aren't taken
108
Recipe factors linked to susceptibility of persuasiveness
- Self-Esteem
-Intelligence
- age
109
Self-Esteem and influenceability
- recipients with moderate self-esteem were most susceptible to influence
110
Intelligence and influence ability
- linear relationship
- higher levels of susceptibility associated with lower levels of intelligence
111
Age and influenceability
- inconsistent results
- some support for a u-shaped relationship for adolescents and adults
Adolescent/ young adults and older adults being more easily persuaded than middle-aged adults
112
Attitude inoculation hypothesis
- based on the medical model of immunization
- proposes that there is an effective way to increase resistance to persuasion by immunizing people against attempts to change their attitudes
- provide them with weak arguments against their current attitudes along with counter-arguments that refute those arguments before they're exposed to persuasive messaging
113
Behavioral economics
- an approach to understanding decision making and behavior that integrates science and economic principles
- materialism, scarcity, and loss aversion
114
Materialism
- A set of values and goals focused on wealth, possessions, image, and status which in relative conflict with aims concerning the well-being of others as well as one's own personal and spiritual growth
115
Materialism and aspects of well-being
- negative relationship
- prioritization of materialistic values and goals strongly correlated with an order of strength. Compulsive buying behavior, engaging in risky health behaviors, negative self-appraisal, and negative affect.
- The strength of relationship between materialism and well-being is greater when materialism is measured with a multi-dimensional scale than when it's measured with the scale that only focuses on a desire for money and possessions
116
Material value scale
- assesses the centrality of acquiring material goods to a person's life and the person's belief about the effects of acquisition on happiness and success
117
Consumerism
The love of buying things
118
Scarcity
- scarcity of something required to fulfill a need causes preoccupation with the unfulfilled need and a reduction in the mental bandwidth that limits our ability to pay attention, make good decisions, stick with our plans, and resist temptation
119
Cognitive capacity
- mechanisms that are required to solve problems, engage in logical reasoning, and retain information
- assessed with measures of fluid reasoning
120
Executive control
- mechanisms that are necessary for planning, shifting attention, and initiating/ inhibiting certain behaviors
121
Scarcity trap
- periods of scarcity can produce them
- preoccupation with an unfulfilled need but also self-defeating behaviors that perpetuate the scarcity
122
Lost aversion
- The displeasure with that people experience when they lose something is greater than a just the pleasure they experience when they gain something
- aggravation caused by losing a specific amount of money is about twice as powerful as the satisfaction caused by gaining the same amount of money
123
Obedience to authority studies
- milgram
- found that subject's (teachers) we're willing to deliver high levels of shock to a Confederate (learner) at the direction of authority, even when doing so seem to harm the Confederate
- psychiatrist predicted 1 in would administer the highest level of shock, 65% delivered the highest level of shock
- Follow-Up questionnaires administered weeks after participation. 84% indicated they were glad. Are very glad they participated and 1% that they were sorry or very sorry
124
Sherif's study on conformity to group norms
- use an ambiguous stimuli (autokinetic effect)
- when each subject was asked to estimate the lights, movement alone estimates varied. But when asked in a group of three, quickly developed and conformed to the group norm providing similar or the same estimates
125
Asch's study on conformity group norms
- use an unambiguous stimulus (line judgment. Task) to study social pressure on conformity
- subjects conformed to group norms over 1/3 of the time
- size of group increased conformity significantly up to four Confederates and slightly up to 7
126
Informational influence
- when people conform to judgments of others because they want to be correct and assume others know more than they do
- most likely to occur in ambiguous situations and lead to private acceptance of The judgment of others
127
Normative influence
- conforming to the judgments of others to be liked or accepted
- explains conformity and unambiguous situations
- leads to public acceptance of the judgments of others while recognizing that the judgments are wrong
128
Social facilitation
- Mayor presence of others increases test performance
- More likely to occur with easy/well-learned tasks
129
Social inhibition
- presence of others decreases task performance
- difficult and unfamiliar tests
130
Social loafing
- Members of a group exert less effort or contribute less when working alone
- More likely to occur in additive tasks where groups product is the sum of the contributions of individual members
131
Leave bigger tips when alone than when contribute to a group tip
Social loafing
132
Social loafing is less likely to occur when
- Small cohesive group
- task is difficult
- group members consider the task personally meaningful
- Crew members believe that their contributions are unique and necessary for successful outcome
- And there's a belief that individual contributions can be identified
133
Deindividuation
- psychological State characterized by diminished self-awareness and self-evaluation
- occurs when people act anonymously because they're in a large group or their identities is disguised
- reduce date of personal responsibility or accountability
134
Zimbardo prison study
- Stanford student volunteers randomly assigned as prisoner a guard
- guards war uniforms that partially disguise their identity and prisoners were identified only by numbers
- prisoners and guards begin acting hostile towards each other
- zimbardo attributed this to due to partially due to deindividulation
135
Other theories of de individuation
- involves increased responsiveness to the social situation and adherence to group norms can lead to positive or negative experiences depending on the situation
136
Proximity
- research has confirmed that the smaller the physical distance between people, the more likely they will come into repeated contact and develop a mutual attraction
137
Mere exposure effect
- The tendency to become attracted to repeated exposures is adaptive because we naturally respond with mild discomfort when encountered with someone or something that's new which is protective
- reputed exposure teaches us that the person or thing is not dangerous and our discomfort is then replaced with positive feelings
138
Similarity
- people tend to be attracted to those they perceive to be similar to themselves in terms of important characteristics
139
Law of Attraction
- applies to similarity of attitude
- there's a positive relationship between similarity and attitude and interacting with people who have similar attitudes is reinforcing
140
Falliability
- Pratt fall effect: people perceived to be very confident or considered to be more confident when they make a small mistake or blunder due to this humanizing them
- people perceived to have average confidence or less likely to be perceived as more likable
141
Reciprocity
- predicts that we like people who like us and just like people who dislike us
142
Game – loss theory
- evaluations that change have the greater impact on attraction than evaluations that remain constant
Ie. We are more attracted to people who initially dislike us but change their minds once they get to know us and people who constantly Express liking and vice versa
143
Emotion in relationships model
- predicts the intense emotions are listed in close relationships when a partner interrupts the couple's usual interpersonal routines by engaging in unexpected behavior
- when interruption leads to a desirable outcome And facilitates the attainment of the person or couple's goals. It leads to positive emotions And when the outcome is undesirable and affects the ability to attain the person or couple's goals, it leads to negative emotions
144
Men and sexual infidelity
- More likely to respond negatively to sexual infidelity of their partners
- evolutionary reaction due to threatening certainty about paternity
145
Women and emotional infidelity
- More likely to be negatively react to emotional infidelity
- evolutionary reaction due to threatening support and resources needed to raise children
146
Double shot hypothesis
- Men and women have different expectations about the occurrence of sexual and emotional infidelity
- Men believe emotional involvement does not necessarily lead to sexual relationship, but when a woman is sexually involved, she is emotionally involved
- women believe that men being sexually involved isn't necessarily lead to emotional involvement, but when they are sexually involved, They are emotionally involved
147
Fascism and anti- semitism
- associated with authoritarian personality
148
Authoritarian personality
- conventionalism
- authoritarian submission and aggression
- power and toughness
- superstitious
- destructiveness and cynicism
- puritanical sexual attitudes
149
Social identity theory
- based on the assumption that we have the tendency to categorize people into groups, belong to more than one group, and to favor our own group
- feeling positive about our own group maintains a positive social identity and increases self-esteem, but can lead to prejudice and discrimination towards members of the other group
150
Scapegoat theory
- purchasing discrimination occur when members of a dominant group blame their problems on members of a vulnerable minority group
151
Realistic group conflict theory
- prejudice and discrimination are direct result of direct competition for scarce and valued resources
152
Robbers cave study
- two groups with strong attachments to members of their own group competed for desired prizes
- most effective strategy for reducing intergroup conflict was to introduce subordinate goals which are mutual desirable goals that can only be accomplished if members from the two groups work cooperatively
153
Over (old fashioned) racism
- openly hostile and aggressive attitudes towards And blatant acts of discrimination against members of a stigmatized racial group
- always intentional
154
Covert( modern) racism
- subtle, ambiguous, and difficult to identify
- make claim that racism is no longer a problem and that members of some racial minority groups are too demanding and have received too many unfair advantages
- has negative consequences for members of racial minority groups
-more prevalent
- can be intentional or unintentional
155
Intentional covert racism
- aware of racist attitudes and behaviors but try to conceal their true intent by giving socially acceptable explanations for them
- employer might say that she didn't hire an African-American job applicant because the applicant didn't have adequate experience, but she knows the real reason is because she would never hire an African-American applicant in regardless of the applicant's experience
156
Unintentional covert racism
- when they do not deliberately engage in harmful acts and are unaware of the negative consequences of their prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behaviors
- employer says that he didn't hire an African-American applicant because a applicant didn't have adequate experience but he never hires African American applicants regardless of their experience even though he believes he's colorblind and doesn't see racial differences
157
Symbolic racism
- endorse the principle of egalitarianism but believe that prejudice and discrimination no longer exist
-believe that members of certain minority groups violate the Protestant work ethic and traditional values of individualism self-reliance and self-regulation
-attribute the social and economic problems of these groups to a lack of effort and other internal factors.
-often express their prejudice indirectly by being opposed to affirmative action and other policies and programs that would give preferential treatment to members of stigmatized minority groups
158
Aversive racism theory
- also endorse egalitarian principles
- although they deny being prejudiced, they have negative feelings about minority group members that they acquired early in life and as a result, they avoid interacting with minority group members
- May act in non discriminatory ways toward them in non-ambiguous situations, but in discriminatory ways an ambiguous situations when their behaviors can be rationalized on some basis other than race.
159
Zimbardo's input process model of de individuation
Inputs: anonymity, increased physiological arousal, altered state of consciousness due to alcohol/ drug use
The process is characterized by a lack of self-awareness and reduce self-regulation and the outputs are unusual behaviors, for example uncharacteristically aggressive behavior and cognitive and emotional changes
160
Agentic state
- explanation for why people obeyed the experimenter in milgram study
- The condition a person is when they see themselves as an agent for carrying out another person's wishes
161
Door in the face technique
- start off by asking for a large request that most people would say no to then counter with a smaller request
162
Foot in the door technique
- ask for a small request that most people would say yes to and once they say yes, ask for an additional request
163
Burger (2009) replication study of milgram study
- found slightly lower obedience than milgrams for both male and female, but the difference of the outcomes was not statistically significant
164
Additive tasks
-not necessary for grp members to work together and the out is the sum of contributions of each group member
-grp performance is better than the best grp member's performance
165
Compensatory task
-grp members work independently
-grp's output is the avg of each members estimate, judgement, or other input
-grp performance is usually better than the performance of any individual member
166
Disjunctive task
-grp members choose the best solution, decision, or judgement from those provided by each members
-grp's performance is equal or lesser than the performance than the performance of the best grp member
167
Conjunctive task
-all members must contribute
- Performance of the entire group is limited by the contribution of the least capable member.
- group's ability to meet a deadline or team's time to finish a relay race
168
Discretionary task
- group members decide how to combine the contribution of each group member
- groups performance depends on how the contributions are combined
169
Bystanders
Most likely to receive help if only one bystander
170
Pluralistic ignorance
- misperception of how others are thinking or feeling
171
Diffusion of responsibility
- reduce sense of personal responsibility due to the belief that others are willing and able to provide assistance increases as a number of bystanders increases
172
Evaluation apprehension
- audience inhibition
- concerns about being judged negatively by others
173
Sources of motivation for helping others
- altruism
- egoism
174
Empathy- altruism hypothesis
People help another person because they're concerned about the person's well-being
- has the most empirical support and is likely to lead to sustained
175
Negative state relief model
- people help to reduce their own distress
- feel empathy for the person in need and the empathy produces sadness and guilt which they attempt to alleviate by helping
176
Subordinate goals
- Robbers cave study
- effectiveness of cooperation to overcome intergroup conflict
177
Jigsaw classroom
- evaluated the effects of subordinate goals on prejudice and discrimination and ethically diverse elementary School classrooms
- reduced prejudice of discrimination towards students belonging to ethnic minority groups
- positive effects on the self-esteem and empathy of all students
- improve the academic performance of ethnic minority students without hindering the performance of majority students
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Realistic conflict theory
,- prejudice and discrimination are a result of direct competition between different groups for scarce and valued resources
- Robbers cave study, conflict caused by competition increase in intensity over time And later included
hostile physical acts
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Social identity theory
- people have a natural tendency to categorize people into groups, to identify with one or more groups, and to favor in groups
- feeling positively toward an end. Group increases group member self-esteem, but can lead to prejudice and discrimination against members of the out group
- in group favoritism developed even in minimal group conditions I.E group membership was temporary and based relatively on unimportant similarities
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Scapegoat theory
- prejudice occurs because members of dominant groups use discrimination against weak Target groups to vent their frustration and disappointment
- been used to explain why frustrating socioeconomic conditions can cause members of a majority group to discriminate against members of a minority
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Authoritarian personality theory
- extreme forms of prejudice and discrimination are attributed to authoritarian personality
- develop the F (Fascism) scale and found that had a high correlation with scores on measures of ethnocentrism and prejudice
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Authoritarian personality
- result of harsh restrictive upbringing
- conventionalism
- authoritarian submission
- authoritarian aggression
- Anti-Intraception
- superstition And stereotypey
- power and toughness
- destructiveness and cynicism
- projectivity
- puritanical sexual attitudes
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Terror management theory
- been applied to number of phenomenon included mental health, personality, altruism, aggression, and prejudice and discrimination
- like other animals, humans have the biological drive to stay alive
- unlike other animals, we have cognitive abilities that allow us to be aware of our own existence and threats to our existence that may dwart our drive to stay alive
- We managed the terror that is associated with our sense of mortality by maintaining faith in our cultural worldview that gives us order meaning and permanence and provides paths to literal or symbolic immortality and by adhering to standards that are consistent with the worldview to maintain our self-esteem
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Morality salience
- increasing our awareness of the inevitability of death increases negative evaluations and reactions to out group members and increases positive reactions and evaluations to in-group members
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Dehumanization
,- evaluative stance toward other humans that involves drawing a line between individuals and groups (in group/out group) of what it means to be human
- can be blatant or subtle
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Blatant dehumanization
- most Early studies focused on this type
- denies the humanness of outgroup members and can elicit extreme aggression and violence towards them
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Settle. Dehumanization
- More recent theories focus on this
- views out group members as less than human rather than non-human
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Infrahumanization theory
- people tend to humanize members of their in-group by attributing more positive and negative secondary emotions to them and which in turn elicits empathy and pro-social behaviors towards those individuals
,, - people tend to attribute fewer positive A negative secondary emotions to members of out groups with illicits less empathy toward them and acceptance of them
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Contact hypothesis
- contact between members of the majority and minority groups is the most effective for reducing prejudice and discrimination. When members of the groups have equal status, members must work together to achieve common subordinate goals, there is no competition between members, and The contact is sanctioned by law, customs, or institutional authorities
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Overt racism
- Old fashioned racism.
- Open hostility and aggressive towards towards and blatant acts of discrimination against members of racial minority groups
- always intentional
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Covert racism
- modern racism
- subtle racism, indirect ambiguous and often difficult to recognize
- can be intentional or unintentional
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Intentional covert racism
- aware of your racist attitudes and behaviors and try to conceal them by giving social acceptable explanations
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Unintentional covert racism
- do not deliberately engage in harmful acts and are unaware of the negative consequences of your prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behaviors
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Symbolic racism
- belief in egalitarian, coupled with the beliefs that prejudice and discrimination no longer exist, members of certain minority groups violate traditional white American values such as Protestant worth ethic, individualism, common self-determination, and that social and economic hardships of these groups are due to lack of effort and internal factors
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Example of symbolic racism
,- oppose affirmative action and other policies designed to promote equality on the grounds that they are unfair
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Aversive racism
- belief in equalitarianism accompanied by non-prejudice, self-image and negative. Often unconscious feelings about minority group members that were acquired early in life
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Example of aversive racism
- avoid interacting with minority group members when possible and act in discriminatory ways. Only when doing so can be justified on a basis other than race
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Ambivalent racism
- combination of positive and negative attitudes towards minority group members
- conflicting attitudes lead to emotional tension in which the person attempts to reduce by amplifying their positive or negative attitudes
- respond in more extreme ways to situations involving a minority group member than in a situation involving a majority group member and response can either be positive or negative depending on the situation
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Example of ambivalent racism
- when rating minority group members who have engaged in undesirable behaviors, you will give more negative radiance for minority group members into majority group members
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Structural racism
- laws, policies, and practices that produce a cumulative, durable, and racial-based inequality and includes failures to correct previous laws and practices that were empirically racist
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Example of structural racism
- funding schools through property tax because it's tied to historical practices of redlining and overvaluing white residential property in neighborhoods
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Institutional racism
- The result of policies, practices, and procedures of institutions that marginalized diverse racial groups
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Example of institutional racism
- zero tolerance policies in schools that cause disproportionate numbers of racial/ ethnic minority students to be suspended or expelled
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Interpersonal racism
- individuals from social and politically dominant racial groups behave in ways that diminish and harm people who belong to other racial groups
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Example of interpersonal racism
- microaggressions
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Internalized/interpersonal racism
-acceptance by diverse racial populations of negative societal beliefs and stereotypes about themselves that reinforce the superiority of whites and could lead to perception of themselves as devalued, worthlessness, and powerless
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Example of internalized racism
- colorism
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Sexism
- negative attitudes toward individuals based solely on their sex combined with institutional and cultural practices that support the unequal status of different sex categories
- Men can be targets but women are most common targets because of their non-dominant position in society
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Ambivalent sexism theory
- sexism is comprised of hostile sexism and benevolent sexism that are both coexisting and complementing components
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Hostile sexism
- Anti-Pathy towards women who are viewed as uncertain men's power
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Benevolent sexism
- subjectively favorable, chivalrous ideology that offers protection and affection to women who embrace conventional roles
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Both hostile and benevolent sexism
- reflect the idea that women are inferior to men and thereby justify maintaining gender inequality
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Men and ambivalent sexism
- Men reconcile their competing views of women by distinguishing between two types of women. They direct hostile sexism towards feminists, career woman and other women. They view as violating traditional roles and direct benevolent sexism towards women whom they believe are adhering to traditional gender roles
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Stereotype
- rigid and inaccurate preconceived notions that one has about all people who are members of a particular group, whether it's defined along racial, religious, sexual, or other lines
- can result in prejudice and discrimination because can lead to rigid expectations
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Self stereotyping
- unconscious internalization of positive and negative stereotypes that are applied to your own group by other groups
- can have negative or positive effects Even when the stereotypes are negative
- evidence that endorsing negative stereotypes of one's group can protect a person's office team by serving as an explanation for their behavior or outcomes
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Stereotype threat
- occurs when a situational factor activates group stereotypes and members of low status groups inducing assimilation to the stereotypes or self-stereotyping
- And pairs the performance of members of stigmatized groups when they are performing tasks that are pertinent to a negative stereotype about their group
,
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Explanation for stereotype threat
- It increases physiological arousal and stress and negative self-statements thereby reducing cognitive resources needed to accomplish a task
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Shooter bias
- White and black subjects demonstrate similar levels of shooter bias in terms of response and accuracy
- And studies of police versus civilians police officers were better able to detect the presence of a weapon and did not exhibit a bias in terms of accuracy. But like civilians, they showed robust racial bias and speed for which they made shoot. Don't shoot decisions I.E decided to shoot armed black subjects more quickly than armed white subjects and not to shoot unarmed white suspects more quickly than unarmed black suspects
,- participants familiarity with cultural stereotypes of black men. Being dangerous, violent, and aggressive was a better predictor of shooter. Bias than was either personal endorsement of racial stereotypes or personal prejudice
