Outline Schaffer & Emerson Glasgow babies study in 1964.
60 Glasgow infants were studied using observations & interviews with parents at regular intervals during the first 18 months after birth.
What did they find from Schaffer & Emerson’s Glasgow study?
A particular pattern of attar my behaviour occurred & identified stages in the development of attachment
What is the first stage of attachment? (S&E)
Asocial (0-6weeks) - babies respond in a similar way to people & objects but prefer human stimuli
What is the 2nd stage of attachment (S&E)?
Diffuse (6weeks-6months) - no specific preference for a particular individual can be comforted by anyone
What is the 3rd stage of attachment (S&E)?
Single Strong Attachment (7-12months) babies show a strong preference for a single individual & will show a fear of strangers
What is the last stage of attachment according to (S&E)?
Babies will show attachment towards several figures. By 18 months some infants may have as many as 5 attachments.
List the four different types of care giver interactions.
- Immediate physical contact
- Imitation
- Interactional Synchrony
- Modified language or motherese
What is attachment according to Schaffer 1996?
A long enduring emotionally meaningful tie to a particular individual.
Outline immediate physical contact.
Mother & Baby skin to skin contact straight after birth.
Outline imitation
Capacity for young infants to imitate adults’ facial expression
Outline Interactional Synchrony
Infants co-ordinating their actions in time with adult speech
Outline modified language or motherese.
Distinctive language pattern - sing song nature.
Outline Melzoff & Moore’s (1977) study
A- investigated imitation of facial expressions in 2-3 week old infants
M- Infants were given 3 facial expressions tongue out pouting & open mouth. Dummy was placed in infants mouths to prevent movement before & after. After the expression was modelled a video was set to record the infant’s. Independent judges rated the infant’s responses.
R- Significant association between the model & infant’s behaviour.
C- V. young infants will imitate facial and hand movements. The same was demonstrated with infants of less than 3 days old
Outline animal research associated with attachment.
Harlow (1959)
A- Behaviour of infant monkeys separated from their mothers
M -Rhesus monkeys were separated from their mothers & kept in a cage with two mothers. 1 wire mother that provided food & another cloth mother which provided comfort.
R- Infant monkeys preferred to spend time with the cloth mother spending 18-22 hours on the cloth mum. The rhesus monkeys showed inappropriate social behaviour, aggression & delinquency. They were aggressive to other monkeys & attacked those who attempted to mate. If they had offspring they were neglecting mothers
C- Physical contact is more important than food. Lack of attachment can lead to delinquent behaviour
What research is linked with immediate skin contact?
Klaus & Kennell (1976) - mothers who cuddled their babies during the critical period after birth have better relationships
What research is linked with interactional synchrony?
Condon & Sander (1974) babies coordinate their actions with adult speech. Frame by frame video analysis of babies actions matched adult speech
What research is linked with motherese?
Snow & Ferguson (1977) - distinctive sing song language used between parents and their infants
What did Isabella et al find in 1989?
Securely-attached mother-infant pairs were those who had shown more instances of interactional synchrony in home observations during the 1st year.
What did Papousek et al find in 1991?
Chinese, German & American mothers tended to use a rising tone to signal to the baby that it was their turn.
What did Murray & Trevathen do in 1985?
They deliberately interfered with interactional turn taking, telling mothers to adopt a frozen face with their babies. They found infants began crying turning away from their mother’s face or deliberately trying to gain her attention
State an evaluative point for immediate physical contact
Myers (1984) suggested that immediate physical skin contact is neither necessary nor sufficient for the development of attachment
What have critics of imitation studies suggest?
Jacobsen (1979) - Young babies are not intentionally sociable therefore they will respond to inanimate objects in a similar way.
What did Abravanel and DeYong find in 1991?
5 and 12 week old babies would imitate tongue pulling & mouth opening models but not when stimulated using objects
What did LeVine et al. find in 1994 in regards to interactional synchrony?
Mothers in Kenya rarely cuddle & interact closely with their babies even though they are attentive to their needs & have secure attachments
What is an evaluative point in regards to motherese?
Motherese may enhance communication but there is no evidence to suggest that it directly affects the formation or quality of attachment. As there are people who use motherese with their children as well as others who are not their own.
Outline the functions of attachment
Survival - proximity, food & communication
Internal Working Model - early relationships act as a model for future relationships
What is the cupboard love theory based on?
Classical Conditioning associating pleasure of food with parent
What research refutes cupboard love theory?
Harlow
What research supports proximity?
Lorenz (1935) imprinting of ducks = evolutionary drive to remain close to their mother for protection
Bowlby (1969) attachment was rooted in the need for proximity
What research supports communication?
Bower (1976) Infants are selective in choosing their attachments & will attach to whoever communicates with them best
What research supports the internal working model?
Bowlby 1969 - model acts as an internal representation of future relationships
What did Dunn 1993 criticise the internal working model for?
It was too general
What is an issue with Bowlby’s IWM?
It is too pessimistic suggesting that if your first attachment is unhappy all will be the same
What does Barnes 1995 suggest is a strength of the IWM
It combines several different perspectives in psychology eg cognitive & behaviourists - understanding attachment & if the behaviour is rewarded it is more likely to be repeated
Outline Ainsworth Strange Situation (1978)
A- To study the reactions of young children to brief separation from their mother to determine the nature & types of attachment
M- Controlled observation inc. 8 stages the child was exposed to 3minute episodes & their behaviour was recorded throughout
R- 67% US children were securely attached 21% Avoidant 12% Resistant/Ambivalent
C- There are different types of attachments & the type of attachment is dependant on the mother’s sensitivity & responsiveness
Outline the 8 stages in Ainsworth Strange Situation
- Caregiver & infant are placed into unfamiliar room with toys
- Child & caregiver are left alone
- Stranger enters the room reads & starts to play with the infant
- Caregiver leaves, leaving the child & stranger alone
- Caregiver returns & stranger leaves
- Caregiver leaves again & infant is alone
- Stranger returns
- Caregiver & infant reunited
What is Anxious Avoidant? (Type A)
A child who ignores mother seems indifferent, easily comforted by stranger little signs of distress
What is Secure? (Type B)
Happy in mother’s presence distressed when mother leaves calm on her return wary of stranger actively seeks proximity & interaction
What is Anxious Resistant/Ambivalent? (Type C)
Infant shows contact seeking & resisting behaviour at the same time. Not easily comforted shows anger & is extremely distressed on her return
What is Anxious Disorganised? (Type D) Main et al 1985
No clear pattern is shown throughout episodes bizarre reunion & separation behaviour ( abused children)
Outline one limitation of the Strange Situation.
Focuses on the relationship with one person usually the mother rather than the social network eg. father siblings etc
Why is the Strange Situation not appropriate for all cultures (Rothbaum et al 2000)
Ethnocentric - focussed on Western ideals & behaviours
What did Takashi find in 1990?
Most Japanese children would be Anxious Resistant - but they are taught to be over dependant & from birth spend all their time with their mother collectivist society not often separated.
What did Grossmann & Grossmann find 1991?
German children tended to be Anxious Avoidant - however they are taught to be independent from a very young age therefore they would be used to being separated from their mother
What did van Ijzendoorn and Kroonberg find in 1988?
Meta-analysis of 32 studies in 8 countries
Cross cultural research & found across all cultures secure was most common
Japan & Israeli - resistant
Germany - avoidant
How did Matas research in 1978 support the SS?
Securely attached infants were more cooperative with their mothers during problem solving tasks at 24 months
What did Elicker et al find in 1992?
At age 11 securely attached infants have more positive self concept
What did Ainsworth find in Uganda (1967)?
Mothers in Uganda behaved in a similar way to that of mothers in Western society & showed greater sensitivity therefore had securely attached children
What are an alternative ways of measuring attachment?
Adult Attachment Interview Main et al (1985)
Attachment Q Sort Waters et al (1995)
Outline the AAI
Last 1hr 15mins including 15 open questions about the individuals attachment experiences semi-structured
What are the 4 categories in the AAI
Insecure-dismissing - attachments are dismissed with little concern
Autonomous-secure - attachment experiences are recalled openly
Insecure preoccupied- longing to please their parents
Unresolved - experience attachment trauma or loss of an attachment figure
What is DEPRIVATION?
The loss of a secure attachment or attachment figure
What is PRIVATION?
Never having the opportunity to form any secure attachment or loving relationship
What is short-term deprivation?
The separation of an attachment figure for short period of time eg. daycare restricted hospital visit
What is long term deprivation?
The long term separation of an attachment figure eg. adoption
Outline a study that supports short term deprivation.
Robertson & Robertson (1969) - John was placed in hospital daycare whilst his mother gave birth.
Father visited him regularly for 2 days
Struggled to gain attention from other nurses & seeked comfort with an oversized teddy he begins to break down refuses to eat or drink & stops playing
1st week greets father enthusiastically
2nd week sits silently
When his mother comes to get him he screams & is extremely angry at her
What is PDD?
Protest Despair Detachment
What are consequences of short term deprivation?
Clingy Aggressive Anxiety
Outline a study which supports long term deprivation
Bowlby (1946) - 44 thieves
Researched the causes of delinquency
Interviewed 44 juvenile thieves - many of them suffered maternal deprivation being separated for long periods of time
14 were diagnosed as affectionless psychopaths
What did Rutter say in 1972 about Bowlby’s research?
It is incorrect maternal deprivation does not cause antisocial behaviour it is the stress caused from the separation itself which can lead to antisocial behaviour
Outline Genie (Curtiss 1977) case study
Genie was discovered at 13 unable to speak walk read write after being locked away for most of her life. Extremely malnourished still needed potty training
Made little progressed then regressed after being badly beaten
Outline the Koluchova study in 1991
Longitudinal study of two Czech twins assessed over 22 years
Discovered at 7 years old unable to talk & suffering from malnutrition
By 10 years old mainstream school average intelligence
22 years totally recovered no psychological problems
Vocational training married & had their own families
Outline Rutter’s Romanian Twins study (2007)
144 children raised in Romanian institutions some of which had been adopted by UK families
Studied at 4 6 and 11
52 Uk adoptees vs those who had not been adopted
9.2% Romanian orphans quasi-autistic
0% UK adoptees quasi-autistic
Outline consequences of privation?
Disinhibited attachments
Poor relationships with peers
Intelligence rates affected
Quasi-autism
How does Harlow’s monkeys support privation?
Monkeys very aggressive lacked social skills attacked monkeys who wanted to mate & neglected their children
What is a key evaluative point for privation?
Very extreme cases - case studies hard to generalise
What is a evaluative point for deprivation?
Imperative in modern changes eg Daycare & divorce
Daycare - Belsky - more than 20 hours dangerous
change in system high quality care small ratios
Divorce - regular contact with absent parent reduced parental conflict lifestyle maintenance & stability necessary
Outline Damon’s research into age related friendships in 1977
A- aged related differences in friendship
M- Children were interviewed about their friendships & asked questions such as tell me about your best friend. The content of replies was analysed & categorised into 3 levels of understanding
R- Under 7 expressed few feelings of like & dislike (quickly formed & dissolved)
8-11 based on mutual interests trust kindness
12+ deep enduring relationships mutual understanding & shared intimacies
C- Understanding of friendship becomes more complex with age
Outline Selman & Jaquette research into age related friendships 1977
A- investigate opinions about friendship (age)
M- 225 individuals 4-32 years old interviewed about friendships
R- Created 5 different stages
3-7 physical interaction -playing together
4-9 Giving help (no reciprocity)
6-12 Focus on Reciprocity
9-15 Intimacy & sharing
12-adult Interdependence autonomy of each person (not too clingy)
C- age increases nature of friendships change
Outline Bigelow & La Guipa’s study (1975) about age related friendships
A- understanding of a friend changed with age
M- 6-14 in Scotland & Canada children wrote essays about their bestfriend researchers then analysed the essay & categorised them
R-Dimensions referred to changed as children got older (reciprocity & sharing)
Younger children common - toys & play
Older children -loyalty & intimacy
C- The understanding of a friend becomes more sophisticated with age
What did Serfica find in 1982?
Not all studies were testing the same thing a friend bestfriend & friendship are all different concepts
What is an evaluative point about aged related friendships?
Children may have complex understandings about friendship but due to their age find it difficult to express them
What did Beneson find out in regards to sex differences in children’s friendships 1990?
A- social networks in 10 year old boys & girls
M- Asked 10 year old children to rate their peers using friendship & play rating scales
R- Boys had more extensive social networks girls had small intimate groups Boys focused on the status of the group whereas girls focused on attributes that were important to 2 people
C- boys & girls have different types of social networks & ideas about what is important for friendship
What did Lever find out in regards to sex differences in children’s friendships 1976?
A- sex differences in friendship attitudes & friendship behaviours
M - 10 year old boys & girls fromm US interviewed about their attitudes towards their friends & interactions
R- Girls comfortable with a single bestfriend - openly showed affection to their friends sensitive to fragility personal intimacies more likely to be jealous
Boys - rarely any affection shown boys were less sensitive shared group secrets & info. not that jealous of a 3rd party
C- Girls are more emotionally involved in friendships (2 person) compared to boys who are more open (groups)
Outline Coie & Dodge study 1973 into popularity
M- asked children who they liked most & who they liked least
R- 5 different types of children - popular,average,controversial,neglected & rejected
What type of children are neglected children?
Socially skilled quiet - choose to play alone rather than being forced
What type of children are rejected children?
Aggressive antisocial disruptive unable to play/share unliked by classmates
What type of children are popular children?
Attractive positive low aggression & able to share
What two types of rejected children did Berk identify in 2003?
Rejected Aggressive - demonstrate behavioural problems hostile impulsive hyperactive
Rejected Withdrawn - passive socially withdrawn inhibited
Outline the causes for popularity & rejection
Attractiveness Similarity Internal Working Model Personality Characteristics Social skills
Explain why attractiveness is a cause of P&R?
Children prefer to be friends with people who are more attractive
What did Vaughn and Langlois find in 1983?
Significant ratings between attractiveness & popularity
Explain why similarity is a cause of P&R
Children will choose friends who live close by or are seen regularly
What did Kandel find in 1978?
3 types of friendships Maintained Newly Formed Dissolved Maintained & Newly Formed friendships share more similar interests compared to dissolve
Outline Dodge et al study into popularity in 1983? ( personality characteristics)
A- behavioural differences between popular & unpopular children
M - observed 5 year old children in the playground how would the third child approach the group
R - Popular children watched waited & made group oriented statements
Neglected children - shied away
Rejected children - highly active & disruptive
C- Unpopularity of rejected & neglected children relates to deficits in social skills
What did Hazan & Shaver 1987 find in regards to attachments & friendship?
Rejected children may not have had a satisfactory attachment
Anxious Avoidant - afraid to get too close
Anxious Resistant - clingy
Secure - happy healthy relationships
Explain why social skills are important in explaining popularity & rejection
Poor social skills are the root problem to for isolated children
What did Oden & Asher find in 1977?
They created a programmed for 8-9 isolates to teach them social skills how to join in how to share & communicate etc
What did Berk describe in 2003?
Acceptance by peers is extremely important for a child’s psychological adjustment
What is popularity associated with?
Positive life outcomes
Outline Cowen et al research in 1973?
Longitudinal study with 800 children
Long term effects of peer relationships on psychological well being
Negative children rated by peers @ 8 were more likely to suffer from psychiatric problems
What did Duck find in 1991?
Rejected children were more likely to grow up & suffer from a range of behavioural & mental disorders inc. alcoholism depression schizophrenia delinquency & psychotic behaviour
What is an evaluative point in regards to the consequences of P&R?
Determining cause & effect is impossible - they could be rejected by others as children because of their behaviour meaning it was a cause not a consequence
What was the problem with Coie & Kuperschmidt?
Only some children were identified as being aggressive & were more likely to show social maladjustment
What are the issues with studies of rejected children?
Many are friendless however some had 2 or 3 friends yet were still rejected
What did Bagwell et al find in 1998?
Effects of rejection alone are differ from the combined effects of friendlessness & rejection
