SPARKLING WINES 🍾 Flashcards
(231 cards)
1
Q
Pros and cons of Chardonnay for sparkling wines
A
Ideal for autolytic style, high acidity, low alcohol, no under-ripe flavours. Prone to spring frosts (early budding), coloure, millerandage. Susceptible to powdery mildew, grapevine yellows, and botrytis bunch rot (wet periods). High yields in the best years (no loss of quality).
2
Q
Pros and cons of Pinot Noir for sparkling wines
A
It lends body to the blend. Prone to spring frosts (early budding), and coloure. Thin-skinned so more disease prone (downy mildew, botrytis bunch rot, fan leaf, leaf roll). Yields are more moderate than Chardonnay (quality drops in high yields).
3
Q
Grape factors that can influence the style of the sparkling wine
A
- Intensity of aromas.
- Ability to retain acidity while ripening.
- How the base wine responds to autolysis where applicable (Chardonnay becomes creamy, Xarel-lo becomes toasty and smoky).
4
Q
Main characteristics in a sparkling wine obtained from high yield
A
High acidity, low alcohol, delicate flavours.
5
Q
Why is important to have healthy fruits for sparkling wine?
A
Effervescence can enhance the perception of any off-flavours from diseased fruit. The enzyme laccase released by botrytis-infected grapes can cause serious oxidation
6
Q
Pros and cons of hand-harvesting for sparkling wine
A
✅ sorting at picking, post-harvest selection, minimised effects of splitting and crushing as well as oxidation (small crates)
❌ slow, labour-intensive, expensive
7
Q
Pros and cons of machine-harvesting for sparkling wine
A
✅ faster, cheaper, night-time harvesting (cooler grapes)
❌ can rupture the skin (phenolic extraction and oxidation), no selection (by hand just prior to machine)
8
Q
Pros and cons of using the whole-bunch pressing
A
Delicate juice, low in solids and phenolics, stems minimise the pressure required, fewer bunches can be loaded so more time consuming.
9
Q
Main types of presses for sparkling wines
A
Pneumatic and basket.
10
Q
How to reduce excessive tannin or colour before the first fermentation?
A
Fining.
11
Q
Range of temperatures for the first fermentation of sparkling wines
A
14-20°C
12
Q
Flocculation
A
The process by which fine particles clump together.
13
Q
Main factors for blending in sparkling wines
A
- Balance (more body from Pinot Noir, higher acidity from Chardonnay).
- Consistency (non-vintage blend).
- Style (early-drinking and longer ageing styles from the same producer).
- Rosé wine (a blend of white and red wines is regulated by local laws).
- Complexity (different grape varieties, vineyard sites, vintages or base wines with different treatments).
- Minimisation of faults (blend with a larger volume of a sound wine).
- Volume (from different vineyards to produce viable volumes).
- Price (cheaper grape varieties like Meunier with more prestigious varieties like Pinot Noir to keep the price affordable).
14
Q
Liqueur de tirage
A
A mixture of sugar, selected yeasts, yeast nutrients, a clarifying agent such as bentonite and/or alginate.
15
Q
Properties needed from the selected sparkling wine yeasts for the second fermentation
A
Commencing fermentation with 9.5-11% abv, the moderate temperature of 16°C and pH below 3, withstanding high pressure, ability to flocculate.
16
Q
Duration of the second fermentation
A
4-6 weeks
17
Q
Liqueur d’expédition
A
A mixture of wine and sugar, or RCGM.
18
Q
Maillard reaction
A
When the liqueur d’expédition reacts with compounds formed during yeast autolysis.
19
Q
The main use for the transfer method
A
To avoid the cost of manual ridding yet retain the autolysis flavours. In Champagne is still used to fill small or large bottles.
20
Q
The difference of transfer method compared to the traditional method
A
Same production up to riddling. After lees ageing, the wine is chilled to 0°C before discharge, the bottles are opened by a transfer machine and the wine is poured into pressurized receiving tanks. So, liqueur d’expédition, SO2 and filtration prior bottling as usual.
21
Q
Main production phase for the ancestral method
A
Partly fermented must is put into bottles and the remaining sugar is converted into alcohol and CO2.
22
Q
Main characteristics of pet nat wines
A
Low alcohol, slightly cloudy, dry to off-dry with unconventional flavours, no SO2 before bottling, early-drinking style.
23
Q
Other names for the tank method
A
Cuve Close, Charmat, or Martinotti.
24
Q
Key steps of the tank method
A
Ideal for large volumes of sparkling wines to be made inexpensively, quickly, and with significantly reduced labour costs in comparison to the traditional method. It preserves the primary aromas of the grapes.
The first fermentation is often slow and cool. The second fermentation takes place in reinforced tanks (arrested by cooling the wine at -5°C).
After second fermentation, the wine is cold stabilised to precipitate tartrates. The yeast is removed by centrifugation or filtration. Sugar levels may be adjusted, checking of SO2, wine is chilled to -2°C to stabilise and to reduce the effervescence, and then bottled with a counter-pressure filler.
25
Key steps of the carbonation
Injection with CO2 under pressure.
It leaves the aromas and flavour characteristics of base wine intact.
Bubbles accentuate any faults of the base wine.
26
CIVC
Comité Interprofessionnel du Vin de Champagne
27
The typical style of a Champagne wine
White, fully sparkling, non-vintage Brut wine made from the blend of Pinot Noir, Meunier, and Chardonnay. Medium intensity aromas and flavours of green apple and lemon fruit with biscuit autolytic notes, high acidity, medium alcohol and a dry-tasting finish. From good to outstanding quality and mid- to premium-priced.
28
"Non-vintage" (NV) classification for Champagne
A wine blended from a number of vintages, same profile every year following a set house style.
At least 15 months of maturing in the producer’s cellar for (12 months on the lees).
29
"Vintage" classification for Champagne
By law, 100% of the wine must come from the year indicated (only in the best vintages, such as 2002 or 2008); it will still reflect the house style but showing the characteristics of the year.
At least 12 months on lees but it cannot be released until 3 years after tirage.
30
Rosé d’assemblage
A Champagne made by blending red wine with white.
31
Rosé de saignée
A Champagne made by skin maceration of black grapes and then the wine is ”bled off”.
32
Blanc de Blancs
White wine made from white grapes only; leaner and more austere in youth, unmatched ageing potential, developing notes of biscuits and hazelnuts.
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Blanc de Noirs
White wine made from black grapes only; fuller bodied and age more rapidly than BdB wines.
34
Grand Cru (Champagne style)
On the label as a quality statement; all the grapes must have been grown within the vineyards belonging to Gran Cru villages.
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Premier Cru (Champagne style)
On the label as a quality statement; all the grapes must have been grown within the vineyards belonging to Premier Cru and/or Gran Cru villages.
36
Prestige Cuvée (Champagne style)
The top wine in a Champagne producer’s range (Krug is specialised in making a range of prestige cuvées); strict selection of the best grapes with meticulous winemaking techniques; can be non-vintage or vintage.
37
Late release, recently disgorged wines (Champagne style)
Extended ageing on the lees, disgorged just before release onto the market, ready to be consumed immediately; different flavour profile from wines of the same vintage that were disgorged earlier, they seem more youthful; they age more rapidly than standard vintage wines (Bollinger RD or Dom Pérignon P2).
38
AOC Rosé des Riceys
Tiny appellation in Côte des Bar for still rosé wine from Pinot Noir.
39
AOC Coteaux Champenois
Appellation for still red, white, or rosé wines, but it’s mainly for a light-bodied, high acidity, pale ruby Pinot Noir.
40
Yeasts autolysis
Enzymatic breakdown of dead yeast cells, it usually continues for 4/5 years but it can last for 10 years, biscuit complexity.
41
The contribute of Dom Pierre Pérignon in the development of Champagne
He produced the first white wine from black grapes, invented Coquard press, blended wines from different areas to make superior wine, re-introduced the cork stopper into France and pioneered the use of stronger English glass. Fizziness was a fault for him.
42
Main facts in the history of Champagne during the 19th century
Controlled second fermentation in the bottle (measured amount of added sugar and yeast) and riddling using pupitres (by Madame Clicquot). Then, disgorgement by dipping the neck of the bottle in an ice-cold bath of salty water and establish a dry style of Champagne (1875-1900).
43
Main facts in the history of Champagne during the early part of the 20th century
Definition of Champagne vineyard area (1927), concept of echelle des crus (rating system to determine grape prices), and the blocage system (later called reserve wines, initially as an insurance policy against future disasters, then to reduce vintage variation by adding depth and complexity on the quality of NV Champagne).
44
Sub-regions of Champagne area
- Montagne de Reims;
- Vallée de la Marne;
- Côte des Blancs;
- Côte de Sézanne;
- Côte des Bar.
45
Climate in Champagne
Cool continental climate, with some oceanic influence, rain of 700 mm per year, the average annual temperature of 11°C. The result is light-bodied acidic wines made from grapes that give freshness and crispness.
46
Effects of climate-changing in Champagne
The warmer climate in the last 30 years has moved forward the harvest on average by 18 days, average acidity has dropped and potential alcohol has risen by 0.7%. So, more consistently ripe grapes and fewer poor vintages.
47
Composition of the soil in Champagne
Chalky soils with limestone subsoil and chalk itself. Chalk is highly porous and stores water, providing a steady supply of water even in dry periods. Vineyards at 90-300 m above the sea level.
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Overview of Montagne de Reims
Well known for black grapes, Grand Cru villages of Aÿ, Mailly, Bouzy, Verzy, Verzenay, and Ambonnay. It’s more of a wide plateau than a mountain. North aspect for some top villages (cool-climate sites, so more frost-prone). Wines with very high acidity and austere in youth. Also important vineyards of Chardonnay. Grand Crus are on chalky soils.
49
Overview of Vallée de la Marne
Plantings of Meunier (a fruity character on clay marl, and sandy soils), and Chardonnay that can be blend into early-drinking wines. Frost-prone valley, so ideal for Meunier (later budding and early ripening).
50
Overview of Côte des Blancs
Devoted to the cultivation of white grapes (95% Chardonnay). It has the purest form of chalk (excellent balance between water retention and drainage). Grand Cru villages of Cramant, Avize, Oger, and Le Mesnil-sur-Oger. Wines of great intensity and longevity (somewhat austere in youth).
51
Overview of Côte de Sézanne
Continuation of the Côte des Blancs, mostly clay and clay/silt soils and some pockets of chalk. Mainly Chardonnay on warmer south-east facing slopes (fruitier and riper grapes). Lower quality than the Montagne de Reims, the Vallée de la Marne, the Côte des Blancs.
52
Overview of Côte des Bar
25% Pinot Noir, Kimmeridgian calcareous marls (like Chablis and Sancerre) with stony limestone elements for the soils, steep slopes help the drainage. A lack of Pinot Noir in the other sub-regions, so Merchants from the north of Champagne buy it here.
53
Grape varieties in Champagne
Pinot Noir, Meunier, Chardonnay, Pinot Blanc, Arbanne, Petit Meslier, and Fromenteau.
54
Distribution of main grape varieties in Champagne
35,000 ha: 38% Pinot Noir (Montagne de Reims and Côte des Bar), 31% Meunier (Vallée de la Marne), and 30% Chardonnay (Côte des Blancs and Côte de Sézanne). They represent 99% of the vineyards.
55
Main characteristics of Meunier
Mutation of Pinot that has white hairs on its leaves giving it a floury appearance. Early budding variety, but later than Pinot Noir (less prone to spring frost or coloure). It’s good on heavier soils (more clay). It ripens earlier than Pinot Noir, sensitive to botrytis infection. It produces fruity wines, so contributes softness to the Champagne blend. Generally, not used for long ageing (exceptions for Krug and Egly-Ouriet).
56
Regulations for planting in Champagne
A maximum inter-row spacing (between the rows) of 1.5 m, an intra-row spacing (between individual vines) of 0.9-1.5 m, so a total spacing (inter- and intra-row) of no more than 2.5 m. Average planting density of around 8000 vines per ha.
57
Main training systems in Champagne
- Taille Chablis;
- Cordon du Royat;
- Guyot;
- Vallée de la Marne.
58
Taille Chablis
The best system for Chardonnay. It usually has 3-4 cordons (max 5). At the end of each cordon is a spur with up to 5 buds. It’s a form of spur pruning, a large proportion of permanent wood that can protect against frost. Spurs trained to a maximum of 0.6 m above the ground (solar energy reflected from the soil).
59
Cordon du Royat
It’s used for Pinot Noir and Meunier in Champagne. Single cordon that is spur-pruned and the shoots are vertically positioned.
60
Vallée de la Marne (training system)
Similar to Guyot, but with a higher number of buds.
61
Hazards, pests, and diseases in Champagne
- Occasional severe winter frost (can kill vines or part of them).
- Spring frosts destroy new buds and reduce yields.
- Disruption to flowering and fruit set due to cold and rainy weather in June (can reduce also yields).
- Downy mildew (can reduce crop levels).
- Violent storms and hails in summer.
- Hot and humid weather in summer (botrytis).
- Downy and powdery mildew, and the dagger nematodes (fanleaf virus).
62
Practices of sustainable viticulture in Champagne
It's one of the first regions where sustainable viticulture has been promoted at a regional level (by CIVC).
Reduction of the use of pesticides (sexual confusion) and implementation of soil protection methods (management of groundwater of slopes and cover cropping).
Practices also for the wineries (water management and waste recycling). In 2010, CIVC introduced a lighter bottle for NV cuvées (60g) to contrast CO2 output.
63
The role of CIVC during the harvest
CIVC is responsible for setting harvest dates and yields each year. It takes grape samples from 450 control plots from the time of véraison, and measures the rate of colour change, the average weight, the sugar concentration and acidity and the incidence of botrytis. Producers can start picking grapes earlier by derogation from INAO (Institut national de l'origine et de la qualité).
64
Duration of harvest in Champagne
Around three weeks.
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Cuvée (pressing for Champagne grapes)
The cuvée (the first 2,050 L) is made up of free run juice and the first pressing. It’s rich in acids and produces wines with great finesse and long ageing potential.
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Taille
The taille (500 L) is the second part. It has lower acidity but is richer in colouring pigments and phenolics. Useful to produce wines more expressive in youth but don’t have the same ageing potential. Usually used for NV.
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Négociant Manipulant
Who buys grapes, must or wine to make Champagne on their own premises and market it under their own label. All the big Champagne houses belong here
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Récoltant Manipulant
Who makes and markets their own label from grapes exclusively sourced from their own vineyards and processed on their own premises.
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Coopérative de manipulation
A wine cooperative that markets Champagne under its own label from members’ grapes.
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Echelle des crus
A system to establish the prices to be paid for the grapes, created in the early 20th century.
100% for the 17 Grand Cru villages, 90-99% for the 44 Premier Cru villages, 80-89% for the other villages. Prices were fixed by CIVC, but the system ended under pressure from the EU. Prices today are determined by the market with the biggest buyer of all (Moët & Chandon).
71
Main export markets of Champagne
UK, USA, Japan, Germany, and Belgium.
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The average price for Champagne grapes
€ 6.10/kg, 1.2 kg to produce 0.75 L
73
Partition of Champagne price
50% grapes cost;
30% total production costs;
20% commercialisation.
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Crémant
It's used to denote some regional French traditional method sparkling wines made outside of Champagne region.
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The main largest Crémant appellations
Alsace, Bourgogne, and Loire.
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Common specifications for Crémant wines
- Whole-bunch pressing.
- Maximum yield at pressing of 100 L per 150 kg of grapes.
- At least 9 months on the lees.
- At least 12 months between tirage and release (ageing is included).
- Maximum 13% abv in the final wine.
- At least 4 atm pressure.
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The typical style for Crémant d'Alsace
Pinot Blanc-based, medium intensity, ripe, apple and pear fruit, medium(+) to high acidity and light to medium body. Long ageing on the lees gives medium intensity biscuit, autolytic notes. Usually Brut style.
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Climate in Alsace
Sunny, semi-continental, dry and hot during the growing season, hot days and cool nights. Spring frost.
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Grape varieties for Crémant d'Alsace
Pinot Blanc and Auxerrois (20%), Chardonnay (1%), Riesling, Pinot Gris, and Pinot Noir.
Maximum yield is 80 hL/ha.
Declaration of Crémant production in July from particular vineyards.
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A common practice of winemaking for Crémant d'Alsace
Must chaptalisation.
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Crémant d’Alsace Emotion
Launched in 2012 to create a top-quality category, at least 75% Pinot Blanc, Chardonnay, and Pinot Noir (separately or together), at least 24 months on the lees.
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The typical style for Crémant de Bourgogne
Chardonnay and Pinot Noir, with up to 20% of Gamay, Brut style with medium(+) acidity, lightly fruity to richly toasty. Medium intensity fruit ranges from green apple and lemon (cooler sites) to apricot (warmer areas). Also Blanc de Blancs, Blanc de Noirs, and Rosé.
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Climate in Burgundy
- The northern areas have a cool climate, no hot and dry summer, south or south-east aspect. Wines with high acidity and light body.
- The central area has the most continental climate, with low winter temperatures and sunny and dry summers. Wines with just-ripe fruit and high acidity.
- The southern area has a Mediterranean influence, with higher summer temperatures. Wines with riper fruit character and lower acidity. Risk of summer storms.
- Common hazards of hail, spring frost, fungal diseases, and esca.
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The main grape sources for Crémant de Bourgogne
Mâconnais (for Chardonnay), Côte Chalonnaise (around Rully), Beaujolais, areas around Chablis in the Yonne department and Châtillon-sur-Seine, Hautes Côtes de Beaune and Hautes Côtes de Nuits, flatland vineyards on the Côte d’Or.
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Grape varieties for Crémant de Bourgogne
Gamay, Pinot Gris, Pinot Noir, Aligoté, Chardonnay, Melon, and Pinot Blanc.
Maximum yield is 80-90 hL/ha.
Declaration of Crémant production before the end of March.
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Crémant de Bourgogne Blanc
The blend must be at least 30% Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Pinot Blanc, and Pinot Gris (separately or together), 20% maximum of Gamay.
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Crémant de Bourgogne Blanc de Blancs
Can be made from any white grape varieties.
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Crémant de Bourgogne Blanc de Noirs
Only from Pinot Noir.
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Crémant de Bourgogne Rosé
Manly from Pinot Noir, but a small amount of Gamay is allowed to help colour.
90
Crémant de Bourgogne Eminent
An additional lees-ageing requirement of 24 months minimum.
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Crémant de Bourgogne Grand Eminent
White wines only from Chardonnay and Pinot Noir, rosé only max 20% of Gamay, vintage is optional, at least 36 months on the lees and 3 months in the bottle before release, only Brut designation.
92
The typical style for Crémant de Loire
90% is white and Brut. Chenin Blanc-dominant wines have medium intensity green apple and citrus flavours with light toasty autolytic notes. Honeyed aromas for wines with 2/3 years of ageing. High acidity. Also Demi-Sec style.
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Climate in the Loire Valley
Influence by the Atlantic Ocean, regular temperatures, mild climate.
Fungal diseases and untimely rain (during flowering, fruit set, and at harvest).
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The main grape sources for Crémant de Loire
In the middle Loire districts of Anjou-Saumur and Touraine.
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Grape varieties for Crémant de Loire
Chenin Blanc, Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Grolleau Noir and Gris, Pineau d’Aunis, Pinot Noir, and Chardonnay.
- Max 30% Cabernet Sauvignon and Pineau d’Aunis (separately or together).
- Maximum yield is 74hL/ha.
- Declaration of Crémant production in July.
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Prestige de Loire
Launched in 2018 to establish the wine at the minimum price of 10€ in France, only white wines from Chenin Blanc, Cabernet Franc, Chardonnay, and Pinot Noir, at least 24 months on the lees, Brut style (also Brut Nature and Extra Brut), producers must also achieve a set of environmental standards, aiming at sustainable viticulture, within five years.
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Saumur Mousseux
At least 60% Chenin Blanc and max 10% Sauvignon Blanc.
Rosé from at least 60% Cabernet Franc and max 10% Sauvignon Blanc.
Maximum yield is 67 hL/ha.
Mechanical harvest is allowed (max 100 L from 130 kg).
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Vouvray Mousseux
At least 95% Chenin Blanc.
| Maximum yield is 65 hL/ha.
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Main areas for the Cava production
Penedès region, Lleida, Tarragona, and Rioja.
100
Overview of Penedès region for Cava production
Main area of production (95%). Mediterranean climate, with sunny summers, mild winters and moderate rainfalls. Most of the vineyards are on 200-300 m above the sea level, some exceptions on 700-800 m (chilly nights, so high acidity). The first soil is alluvial and clay and the second is stony clay and granite sub-soils. Poor in nutrients, adequate drainage and water retention. The main towns are San Sadurní d’Anoia and Vilafranca del Penedés.
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Overview of Lleida for Cava production
From 100 to 700 m above sea level. Mediterranean climate at lower levels with increasing continental influences at higher altitudes. Irrigation system from the Pyrenees (frost protection in spring). Wines with ripe fruits at low altitudes and high acidity at high altitudes. Largest single-vineyard estate owned by Raventos with 2,200-hectare Raimat estate.
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Overview of Tarragona for Cava production
Low lying or undulating hills with a Mediterranean climate. Simple wines, Macabeo-dominated for early drinking style. Conca de Barberà area is the home of the Trepat, black variety used for Cava Rosado.
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Overview of Rioja for Cava production
Rainfall protection by the Cantabrian Mountains. Grape varieties are Viura (Macabeo, it ripens later than in Penedés) and Chardonnay.
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White grape varieties for Cava
Macabeo, Xarel-lo, Parellada, and Chardonnay.
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Black grape varieties for Cava
Garnacha Tinta, Trepata, and Pinot Noir.
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Macabeo
36% of the vineyards registered for Cava. Planted at 100-300 m above the sea level, late budding, high yielding. Susceptible to botrytis bunch rot and bacterial blight. Light intensity apple and lemon aromas and flavours.
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Xarel-lo
26% of the vineyards registered for Cava. Planted at 0-400 m above the sea level, indigenous to Cataluña, mid-budding (spring frost), mid-ripening. Susceptible to powdery and downy mildew. Greengage and gooseberry notes, herbal (fennel) notes that sets it apart from the other varieties and can become earthy when the fruit is over-ripe. Reasonable affinity with oak.
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Parellada
21% of the vineyards registered for Cava. Planted on higher sites (500 m), indigenous to Cataluña, the lowest yielding, the lowest alcohol, latest ripening of the three main indigenous Spanish white grapes. Early budding and susceptible to powdery mildew. Finesse and floral notes.
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Chardonnay (Cava)
9% of the vineyards registered for Cava. Body, richness, and finesse. The choice of clone and rootstock are vital for balanced ripeness.
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Garnacha Tinta
Not so much used because of its tendency to oxidise but contributes ripe red fruit and some spicy notes.
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Trepat
Strawberry flavours and high acidity, legally used only for Cava Rosado.
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Pinot Noir (Cava)
Used for Rosado blends and as a single variety.
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Cava category
At least 9 months on the lees, with primary fruit aromas (lemon, red apple, herbal fruits, light biscuit autolytic), medium to medium+ acidity, good to very good quality, mid- to premium-priced (some exceptions for super-premium prices).
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Cava Reserva
At least 15 months on the lees with more evident autolytic notes.
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Cava Gran Reserva
At least 30 months on the lees, with dominant autolytic notes and premium to super-premium prices.
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Cava de Paraje Calificado
New category introduced in 2017. The wine must be made from the grapes of one single estate, owned by the producer of the wine. At least 10 years old for the vines (8,000 kg/ha 48 hL/ha). No acidification, at least 36 months on the lees.
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Corpinnat
Group of high-quality producers founded in 2019. 100% organic grapes from Penedès, hand harvest. 90% of the grapes must be approved local varieties. On the lees for 18, 30 and 60 months.
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Clàssic Penedès
Category created in 2014. At least 15 months on the lees. The first worldwide appellation of premium sparkling wines from 100% organic grapes.
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Espumoso de Calidad de Rioja
Category created in 2017. Hand harvest. Crianza, at least 15 months on the lees. Reserva, 24 months. Gran Añada, 36 months.
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Main export markets of Cava
Germany, UK, USA, France, and Japan.
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The typical style for Prosecco
Tank method from Glera grapes. Light to medium(-) intensity of apple and pear, light body and medium to medium+ acidity. From Brut do Demi-Sec style (Extra-Dry is the most common). Production in both fully sparkling (spumante) and lower pressure (frizzante) styles. Quality is good for Prosecco DOC and good to very good for DOCG. Mid-priced, with a few wines at premium prices.
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Climate in the Prosecco area
Warm and moderately continental, with moderate rainfall. Moist air and fog from the rivers, so an increment of sprays use to combat disease.
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Soils in the Prosecco area
Vary considerably, fertile on the plain (high yield and light intensity wines).
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Glera
Vigorous and semi-aromatic variety. It’s susceptible to millerandage, powdery and downy mildew, drought in summer and grapevine yellows. It has to be trained long with 8-12 buds (first two buds don’t bear much fruit). Low to medium planting densities.
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Sylvoz
High cordon system with shoots that hang downwards. Well suited to high vigour sites. Inexpensive to create initially, minimises winter pruning and is suitable for machine harvesting. The height of the cordon provides some protection from frost. The disadvantages are that it may encourage overcropping and requires careful monitoring to avoid excessive shading.
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Double arched cane
Cane pruning where the canes are bent into arches, so an improvement of the evenness of growth and the fruitfulness of Glera and it increases the ventilation of the canopy. It’s common on the hillside sites of Prosecco DOCG. The disadvantages are that individual branches have to be tied in on every plant (cost) and care must be taken to maintain an open canopy.
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Main training systems for Prosecco
Sylvoz, double arched cane, single or double Guyot.
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Prosecco Col Fondo
Traditional style, lightly cloudy, dry wines in a frizzante style. Both for DOC and DOCG wines, “rifermentazione in bottiglia” on the label (second fermentation in the bottle, wine is undisgorged and is bone dry). Crown cap and contains sediments. Ageing for short time. Tiny production.
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Winemaking techniques for Prosecco
First fermentation for 15-20 day at 18°C. Second fermentation for one month at 12-15°C. So chilling, filtering, and bottling. No requirements for the ageing.
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Prosecco DOCG Rive
It means the slope of a steep hill and a place name; grapes are grown in one of 43 designated single communes or vineyards, hand harvest, low yield, vintage on the label. Yield of 90 hL/ha.
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Superiore di Cartizze
Historic and delimited single-vineyard area of 108 ha in Valdobbiadene. Shallow soils, steep hillsides, very good drainage, very high-quality wines with fuller body and residual of sugar above Brut level. Prosecco is not used in conjunction with Cartizze. Yield of 85 hL/ha.
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Main export markets of Prosecco DOC
60% - the main countries are UK, USA, and Germany.
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Main export markets of Prosecco DOCG
40% - the main countries are Germany, Switzerland, and the UK.
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The typical style for Asti DOCG
Tank-fermented wine made from Moscato Bianco (Asti, Alessandria, and Cuneo). Pronounced aromas and flavours of orange blossom, grapes, and peach. Medium acidity, low alcohol (traditionally 6-8% abv, now at least 6% abv) and from Extra-Dry to sweet (traditionally sweet 100 g/L). Good to very good quality. Inexpensive to mid-priced.
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The typical style for Moscato d’Asti DOCG
Tank-fermented wine made from Moscato Bianco (Asti, Alessandria, and Cuneo). Lower alcohol (6-8% abv), medium(+) acidity and sweeter than Asti DOCG (around 130 g/L). Good to very good quality. Inexpensive to mid-priced. Max 2.5 atm in pressure.
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Moscato Bianco
It's an aromatic, early budding, mid-ripening variety with a small berry size. It’s prone to powdery mildew and botrytis bunch rot. Thin skin and it’s attractive to bees, wasps, and flying ants. Susceptible to mites. Modern research to make it more resistant to disease, perfumed, and higher yielding.
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Climate and soil in Asti
The climate is moderate continental with cold winters and moderately warm, dry summers. Spring and autumn are the rainiest seasons (a problem for fruit set and harvest). Hillside sites with limestone and clay soils. Maximum yields are 70 tons/ha.
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Main training system for Asti and Moscato d'Asti
Replacement cane system such as Guyot.
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Winemaking techniques for Asti and Moscato d'Asti
Variation of the tank method. Soft pressing (whole bunch), the juice is settled, filtered and refrigerated to 2-3°C. Refrigeration of the must that is not required immediately (fresh primary fruits aromas). Only one fermentation in pressure-resistant tanks at 16-18°C to preserve primary fruit. Neutral cultured yeasts, no malo.
The sugar comes from the must and the residual sugar is obtained from stopping of the fermentation. Initially, CO2 is released through a valve in the tank. Residual sugar levels and pressure are constantly checked until the desired values, so stopping of fermentation by chilling and filtration the wine under the pressure to remove the yeast.
A pressure of 5 atm.
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Types of Asti wines
Moscato d’Asti, Asti Secco, and Asti.
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Main export markets of Asti and Moscato d'Asti
Europe (Asti) and USA (Moscato d'Asti).
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Key characteristics to consider for balance in the traditional method
Acidity and dosage.
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The typical style for Lambrusco
Red and tank-fermented, sparkling (spumante) or semi-sparkling (frizzante) wines made from the family of Lambrusco varieties mainly in Emilia-Romagna. Strawberry fruit, medium to medium(+) tannins, high acidity, and, usually, residual sugar. Colour is from pale pink to deep ruby. Quality is mainly acceptable to good (a small number of very good). Prices from inexpensive to mid-priced.
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Climate and soil in Emilia
Low hills (150 m). Warm and continental climate with adequate rainfall (threat during harvest time). Irrigation is allowed. The soils are alluvial (clay and silt) and prone to compaction (many vineyards are grassed between rows to allow access by machine and to reduce compaction).
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Main training systems for Lambrusco
Cordon trained (Sylvoz) and Geneva Double Courtain
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Lambrusco Salamino
The most widely planted variety. Fragrant, deep coloured, full-bodied wines with high acidity, mostly blended with other Lambrusco varieties. Lambrusco Salamino di Santa Croce DOC requires at least 85% of this variety, maximum yield of 133 hL/ha.
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Lambrusco Grasparossa
It prefers soils with clay and silt, the only variety grown on the hillsides. Deep coloured, full-bodied with medium(+) tannins. Lambrusco Grasparossa di Castelvetro DOC requires at least 85% of this variety, maximum yield of 126 hL/ha.
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Lambrusco di Sorbara
Pale, lighter-bodied wines with high acidity. Lambrusco di Sorbara DOC requires at least 60% of this variety, maximum yield of 126 hL/ha.
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Lambrusco di Modena DOC
Made with Lambrusco varieties grown in the province of Modena. Very high yields of 161 hL/ha, so low levels of fruit concentration, acceptable to good quality, and inexpensive prices.
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Reggiano Lambrusco DOC
Made with Lambrusco varieties grown in the province of Reggio-Emilia. Maximum yields of 126 hL/ha.
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Winemaking techniques for Lambrusco
Maceration on the skins for 1-2 days (high levels of anthocyanins), so not so many tannins. For more structured, fuller-bodied wines, typically from Lambrusco Grasparossa, skins contact for 3-4 days. First fermentation at 18-20°C. No malo.
Mainly tank method. Second fermentation at 12-15°C for two weeks for frizzante and one month for spumante. Zero dosage to Brut; sweet wines have the fermentation stopped or sweetened by blending with must or RCGM.
Some bottles are produced by the ancestral method.
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Sweetness terms/levels of Lambrusco spumante
Dosaggio Zero 0-3 g/L, Extra Brut 0-6 g/L, Brut 0-12 g/L, Extra Dry 12-17 g/L, Sec/Secco/Asciutto 17-32 g/L, Demi-Sec/Abboccato 32–50 g/L, Dolce > 50 g/L.
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Sweetness terms/levels of Lambrusco frizzante
Secco/Asciutto, Abboccato, Amabile; a broader range of sweetness.
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The typical style for Franciacorta
Ripe apple and peach fruit and prominent biscuit-like, autolytic notes, medium alcohol and medium(+) acidity. Very good or outstanding in quality and premium-priced.
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Climate and soil in Franciacorta
The vineyards are in a compact zone mostly surrounded by low hills, with Lake Iseo at the northern boundary.
Warm continental climate with warming influences. Cool air descends in summer from the Alps. Influence of Lake Iseo by moderating temperatures. Spring frost can be an issue in the most difficult years (2017).
Six main soils, formation from the action of glaciers.
Adequate rainfall (nearly half during autumn and winter). Irrigation is allowed. Shorter ripening period than Trento. Vintage variation is limited.
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Main grape varieties in Franciacorta
Chardonnay (75%), Pinot Noir, and Pinot Blanc.
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Main training system for Franciacorta
Cordon training with spur pruning or head training with replacement cane pruning (Guyot).
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Winemaking techniques for Franciacorta
Whole bunch pressing, maximum yield after pressing is 65 hL/ha. Traditional method. Mainly stainless steel tanks but some producers use oak to add complexity (especially in Millesimato and Riserva). Malo is possible. Reserve wines for extra complexity are used by larger producers.
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Wine styles in Franciacorta
- Non-vintage – typically a Chardonnay/Pinot Noir blend (Pinot Blanc can be up to 50%), at least 18 months on the lees; usually are made from the fruit of a single vintage.
- Satén – only white grapes, at least 24 months on the lees, less sugar at tirage (5 atm pressure), only Brut style.
- Rosé – at least 35% Pinot Noir, the colour is obtained from skin contact (blending with red wine is permitted), at least 24 months on the lees.
- Millesimato – vintage declared, at least 85% of grapes from that year, at least 30 months on the lees.
- Riserva – Millesimato wine with at least 60 months on the lees.
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Main export markets of Franciacorta
Japan, Switzerland, Germany, and USA.
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The typical style for Trentodoc
Ripe yellow apple fruit and biscuit-like, autolytic notes, and medium alcohol balanced by medium(+) to high acidity. Very good to outstanding quality. Premium and super-premium prices.
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Climate and soil in Trentino
Warm and continental climate, with marked cooling influence. Mountains offer protection from cold winds, Lake Garda influences temperatures during the growing season.
Stony and well-drained soils, poorer in nutrients (slow steady growth and long maturation season).
Vineyards on 400-700 m above the sea level, steep slopes (cost).
Spring frost on the lowest slopes and valley floor.
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Main training system for Trentodoc
Sloping vineyards use Guyot. Pergola system for steeper and terraced vineyards.
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Winemaking techniques for Trentodoc
Maximum yields to 105 hL/ha. First fermentation in stainless steel tanks. Malo is possible. Traditional method. Cultured yeasts, small amounts of reserve wines in non-vintage. At least 15 months (it’s common to find 20-30 months) for non-vintage. Vintage at least 24 months. Riserva at least 36 months (5-10 years is frequent).
Trento and Trento Rosato can go from Brut Nature to Dolce. Trento Riserva may be Brut Nature to Brut only.
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Counter-pressure filling
A system used with other carbonated drinks in which the bottle is first filled with CO2 under pressure. Then, the bottle is filled with the chilled wine that replaces CO2.
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Sekt
Tank-fermented wines, no mention of grape varieties or vintage, typically made from base wines from inexpensive regions of southern Europe and made sparkling in Germany. Sold 6 months after the start of second fermentation, at least 90 days on the lees (30 days if the lees are stirred). 90% of the wines are in this category. Light intensity fruit and no autolytic notes. Brut or Extra Dry style, noticeable residual of sugar and medium acidity. Acceptable to good quality and inexpensive prices. Alcohol of at least 10% abv and CO2 pressure of at least 3.5 atm.
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Deutscher Sekt
Sparkling wine made from German-grown grapes by the tank or traditional method, vintage or non-vintage, single variety (at least 85%) or multiple varieties. No region of origin on the label. Alcohol of at least 10% abv and CO2 pressure of at least 3.5 atm.
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Deutscher Sekt bA
“ba” means bestimmter Anbaugebiete (of a defined region). Like the Dutscher Sekt category but grapes come from one of the 13 defined wine-growing regions, reported on the label. Alcohol of at least 10% abv and CO2 pressure of at least 3.5 atm.
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Winzersekt
Sparkling wine made only from the grapes grown from the estate, traditional method, at least 9 months on the lees. Vintage, grape varieties and producer’s name on the label. Typically from Riesling, so medium intensity green apple and white peach fruit with toasty, smoky, autolytic notes. High acidity and Brut style. Very good to outstanding quality and mid- to premium-priced. Alcohol of at least 10% abv and CO2 pressure of at least 3.5 atm.
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Sekt categories
Sekt, Deutscher Sekt, Deutscher Sekt bA, Winzersekt.
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Perlwein
Known as Secco, quality wine can be made from a specific region (Qualitätsperlwein bA) or as EU wine (Perlwein). Carbonation or second fermentation (tank method). Often sweeter than Sekt. Trocken can have up to 35 g/L, Halbtrocken (off-dry) has between 33 and 50 g/L; Mild has more than 50 g/L. Pressure < 3 atm.
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Grape growing for high-volume tank-fermented Sekt
The grapes are grown in high-volume production areas of southern Europe (Italy, Spain, and France). Low aromatic style is preferred so early picking. The grapes are typically crushed in the region of origin and the juice is chilled and transported by truck or train.
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Grape growing for Deutscher Sekt, Deutscher Sekt bA, and Winzersekt
Grapes with low potential alcohol and high acidity (cool continental climate in Germany). Early picking for sparkling wines. Usually, wines of single grape variety, or blends with Chardonnay or Pinot Noir. The main grapes are Riesling, Pinot Noir, Pinot Blanc, Pinot Gris, Chardonnay, and Silvaner. Hand harvesting for higher quality wines. Variations in climate and soils are mainly overridden by blending prior second fermentation.
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Tank method for Sekt production
First fermentation at low temperatures, blending to ensure consistency and second fermentation in tanks. Higher quality wines spend at least 3-6 months on the lees before filtration, bottling, and release to the market. Grower can produce base wine and then send it to large Sekt-producing specialist companies for the second fermentation.
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Traditional method for Sekt production
No malo for Riesling. Focus on Riesling’s distinctive floral, so minimum time on the lees (9 months). Other producers prefer autolytic notes, so long ageing (at least 18 months) for smoky notes. Mature sweet Riesling may be used for the dosage in premium bottles to add richness. Some companies use the transfer method to reduce costs.
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Flaschengärung
German term for “bottle fermented”, but may be disgorged by transfer method.
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Klassiche Flaschengärung
German term for traditional method.
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VDP Sekt
Incorporated in 2018 by VDP. Fruit must be grown on the estate of a VDP member and be produced specifically for Sekt production. Early picking by hand, whole cluster pressing, traditional method. Non-vintage, at least 15 months on the lees. Single vineyard and all vintage wines, at least 36 months on the lees.
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Number of Grand Cru and Premier Cru in Champagne
17 Grand Cru
| 44 Premier Cru
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Grand Cru villages of Côte des Blancs
Cramant, Avize, Oger, and Le Mesnil-sur-Oger.
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Grand Cru villages of Montagne de Reims
Aÿ, Mailly, Bouzy, Verzy, Verzenay, and Ambonnay.
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The typical style for English sparkling wines
Crisp, high acidity, medium(-) alcohol and light to medium body. Crisp green apple and lemon flavours with autolytic notes. Racy high acidity and just-ripe fruit are distinctive characteristics. Very good quality with some outstanding examples. Premium to super-premium prices.
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Climate in Southern England
Cool maritime climate. Spread rainfall, from the average growing season temperature of 13°C (1950) to 14°C (today).
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Threats in Southern England
Risk of frost damage: earlier budding (warmer springs), planting of early budding varieties (Chardonnay and Pinot Noir).
Prolonged rain is the biggest threat (maritime climate). Rain and cool in June and July can affect flowering and fruit set (2012 had the wettest June).
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Key factors for site selection in Southern England
- south-facing slopes;
- maximum shelter from the winds;
- good drainage is to avoid regularly wet soils and root zone;
- altitude below 125 m above the sea level.
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Soil in Southern England
Clay predominates in Kent and parts of Sussex (high water-holding capacity and fertility). Sussex and Hampshire have significant amounts of chalk (good drainage and low fertility). Chalk soils at higher elevations (more vulnerable to adverse weather).
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Differences in the wine from clay and chalk soils
Clay soils give slightly richer wines with slightly lower acidity and more pronounced fruit; chalk can give more finesse, but with higher acidity and a leaner body.
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Training system in Southern England
Guyot system with vertical shoot positioning.
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Winemaking techniques for English sparkling wines
Mainly traditional method, vintage wines, at least 9 months on the lees, unoaked (some use oak maturation to add richness), malo. Recently, some are moving on non-vintage style (use of reserve wines).
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Grape varieties for English sparkling wines (PDO)
Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Pinot Noir Précoce, Meunier, Pinot Blanc, and Pinot Gris.
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Pinot Noir Précoce
Ripening two weeks earlier than Pinot Noir.
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The typical style for American sparkling wines
Traditional method Chardonnay and Pinot Noir blends, good to outstanding quality and prices from mid to super-premium. Medium intensity aromas of ripe yellow apple and lemon with toasty autolytic notes and medium(+) acidity. Brut style. A few producers also use Meunier, but it’s less common than in Champagne.
Also tank-fermented wines with additional fruit flavours (raspberry, peach, etc.), Extra Dry style, a noticeable residual sugar, and Pet Nat wines are made. Inexpensive to mid-priced.
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Overview of California for sparkling wines production
Chardonnay and Pinot Noir for premium sparkling wines are grown in the coastal regions cooled by the cold Pacific Ocean. This cool air is drawn towards the hotter Central Valley, so high level of acidity and moderate alcohol.
About tank-fermented wines, the grapes are Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Pinot Gris, Pinot Blanc, Sauvignon Blanc, Viognier, Syrah, and Tempranillo. They’re grown in warm regions so early harvest (residual sugar to compensate for under-ripe flavours).
The main subregions are Anderson Valley, Russian River Valley, Carneros.
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Overview of Anderson Valley for American sparkling wines
Mendocino county.
Close to the Pacific, cool ocean breezes and fog are conveyed along the Navarro river valley to moderate temperatures and reduce sunshine hours further up the valley. Wide diurnal temperature ranges are common and enable growers to maintain high levels of acidity. Home to the Roederer estate. Who makes still wines makes also a small amount of sparkling wines. Wineries from outside the region, buy grapes here.
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Overview of Russian River Valley for American sparkling wines
Sonoma county.
Cool breezes and fog provide cooling influences both via the river and through the Petaluma Gap in the coastal mountain range. Home to Korbel, sparkling pioneer.
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Overview of Carneros for American sparkling wines
Sonoma and Napa counties.
| Significant cooling from the San Pablo Bay. Home to Gloria Ferrer (Freixenet) and Domaine Carneros (Taittinger).
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Overview of Napa Valley for American sparkling wines
Napa county.
Most of Napa is too hot, but important wineries that produce sparkling wines were founded here (now they source their grapes in cooler areas). Some producers blend Napa fruit with fruit from other regions.
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Overview of Monterey for American sparkling wines
Monterey county.
In the 1940s, Heat Summation Scale by University of California and identification of cool zones (northern parts) with high diurnal temperatures ranges.
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Overview of Edna Valley and Arroyo Grande for American sparkling wines
San Luis Obispo county.
| They’re in the coolest part of San Luis Obispo (proximity to the coast and cold ocean).
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Overview of Santa Maria Valley and Sta. Rita Hills for American sparkling wines
Santa Barbara county.
Identification by Heat Summation Scale. The east-west running Santa Maria Valley and Santa Ynez Valley form channels to allow cool breezes and fog to seep into Santa Barbara county.
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Overview of Lodi for American sparkling wines
San Joaquin county.
| Too warm but large volumes of tank-fermented and flavoured sparkling wines.
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Overview of Washington State for sparkling wines production
The 2nd largest producer of sparkling wines in the USA. Northerly latitude and extra daylight hours and day/night temperature difference helps to grow grapes with light intensity aromas and medium to medium(+) acidity.
Blends from Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and Meunier. Blanc de Blancs and Blanc de Noirs. Also single varietal wines (including Müller Thurgau, Riesling, and Gewurztraminer). Very competitively priced.
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Overview of Oregon for sparkling wines production
The cool climate of the Willamette Valley allows fruit to ripen slowly and to retain naturally high acidity. Argyle was the pioneer. Wineries not specialised in sparkling wines use contracting companies.
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Winemaking techniques for American sparkling wines
Premium sparkling wines are made by the traditional method (often a blend), while inexpensive wines are made by the tank method.
Blanc de Noirs is a more common style in the USA. No specific regulations, some producers add a small amount of white grapes.
Many wineries are now making small batches of sparkling wines only sold through the tasting room or direct to consumers because it’s not financially feasible to invest in the equipment needed.
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Types of sparkling wine companies in America
- Specialist sparkling wine companies often founded by Champagne and Cava houses, distribution across the USA and small quantities of exports;
- Wine companies that produce small batch, premium sparkling wines, they are sold at the cellar door, directly to consumers, locally;
- Large wine companies that produce inexpensive sparkling wines.
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The typical style for Argentinian sparkling wines
Initiative in 1959 from Moët & Chandon.
Mainly tank method, but also carbonation and traditional method. Around 160 wineries, the majority in Mendoza.
Tank method wines are fruity and off-dry to medium-dry and are of acceptable to good quality. Traditional method wines made from Chardonnay and Pinot Noir have ripe apple and lemon fruit with autolytic notes, Brut style. Good to very good quality. Mostly inexpensive prices but some are mid- to premium-priced.
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Main grape varieties for Argentinian sparkling wines
Pedro Giménez, followed by Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc, Pinot Noir, Ugni Blanc, and Semillon.
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Subregions for Argentinian sparkling wines
Grapes for inexpensive carbonated or tank method wines may be grown in warm parts of Mendoza. Grapes for higher quality sparkling wines are grown in sub-regions such as Luján de Cuyo and Uco Valley. High altitude in these regions, so cool climate. New vineyards in Neuquén and Rio Negro (southerly Patagonia), latitude helps to keep temperatures down.
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Winemaking techniques for Argentinian sparkling wines
Inexpensive Argentinian sparkling wines are made by carbonation from Pedro Giménez, Chenin Blanc, and Semillon. Carbonation also to produce wines with additional fruit flavourings (strawberry). Tank method is used for mid-priced products (full range of varieties).
Traditional method for mid-priced and premium wines. Grapes from the best sites (Chardonnay and Pinot Noir). Vintage or non-vintage, at least 12 months on the lees. Ripe apple and lemon fruit, autolytic aromas, medium to medium(+) acidity, medium to medium(+) body, medium alcohol.
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Carbonated sparkling wines in South Africa
Inexpensive, carbonated sparkling wine made with a range of varieties including Sauvignon Blanc, Muscat, and Pinotage. Primarily consumed in the domestic market and exported to the sub-Saharan territories (Angola, Mozambique, and Nigeria). Simple, fruity wines, often off-dry to sweet. Acceptable to good quality. -15% of production between 2011 and 2016.
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Cap Classique
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Méthode Cap Classique (MCC) is both the name of a production method in South Africa and a trademark of an association (1992) of growers and producers producing these wines. Traditional method from Champagne varieties, Chenin Blanc, and Pinotage. Ripe yellow apple and citrus fruit, medium(+) acidity, medium alcohol and with varying levels of autolysis. Mid- to premium-priced. Good to very good quality. At least 3 bars of pressure post-disgorgement. At least 9 months on the lees (change in 2020, 12 months on the lees).
Hand harvest (recommended). Better producers separate press fractions. Acidification of musts is commonplace. Some ferment a portion of fruit in oak (more complexity). Malo is possible. Reserve wines (around 10%) are used by premium houses.
```
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Main grape varieties in South Africa for Cap Classique
Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Chenin Blanc, and Pinotage make up at least 95% of the grapes used in Cap Classique.
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Regions and soils in South Africa for Cap Classique
Main regions are Robertson, Stellenbosch, Paarl, Darling, and Tulbagh.
Robertson and Bonnievale (Breede River Valley) have a significant amount of limestone soils. Narrow valleys, slower to warm up in the morning, drop temperatures in the afternoon because of cool breezes from the ocean at Cape Agulhas that run up the Breede River. They have the biggest diurnal shift between day and night temperatures.
Elsewhere, vines are grown on shale, clay, and decomposed granite.
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Rosé techniques for Cap Classique
- by blending white and red wines (control of tannins and colour) prior to second fermentation;
- from a white blend to which red wine is added prior to second fermentation;
- by the maceration of a red varietal prior to primary fermentation (less used).
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Projects on which Cap Classique Producers’ Association is working
- It submitted a proposal in March 2017 for the law to change, all grapes have been “certified”, minimal ageing on the lees of 12 months from 2020 vintage. All producers of Cap Classique will have to be members of the Cap Classique Producers’ Association (to have the same standards and same profile of wine).
- A proposal for two categories of Cap Classique: standard (existing rules) and higher quality (wine made from Champagne varieties plus Chenin Blanc and Pinotage, whole bunch pressing, at least 36 months on the lees).
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The typical style for Chilean sparkling wines
Started in the 19th century with Valdivieso.
Most wines are tank fermented and are made to be fruity (Brut and slightly sweeter). A small number of traditional method. The main varieties are Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and Sauvignon Blanc. Inexpensive to mid-priced and from acceptable to very good quality.
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Regions for Chilean sparkling wines
Grapes are generally grown in the cooler coastal areas, the cooler Andean foothills or the milder regions in the south. Central Valley (warm) for the inexpensive grapes.
Harvest from early February until the first week of March.
Cheaper wines are blended from different valleys.
Premium wines come from Casablanca, San Antonio (Leyda) and Limarí (cooled by the Pacific Ocean). Also Curicó (coastal parts) and Bío Bío (southerly latitude, open to the influence of the ocean).
Moscatel (Muscat) and País are produced in Itata and Maule. Irrigation in all the areas except Itata (high rainfall).
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Main grapes for Chilean sparkling wines
90% tank method. Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc.
| Chardonnay and Pinot Noir for traditional method. Also País and Moscatel.
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Regions for Australian sparkling wines
Grapes for traditional method are grown in the cooler regions as Tasmania, Yarra Valley, Adelaide Hills and the alpine regions of Victoria and New South Wales on higher altitudes. High acidity, moderate potential alcohol, ripe and medium intensity fruit characters. Lower yields, so higher prices.
Tasmania is the leading region for high-quality traditional method wines (joint venture between the Tasmanian company Heemskerk and Champagne Louis Roederer. Tamar Valley is much warmer and harvest before Piper’s River. Southern Tasmania is cooler than Champagne but has higher sunlight intensity due to its latitude. Blending from cooler and warmer areas for balanced wines.
Spring frosts and high rainfall are the main challenges for premium sparkling wines. Coulure and botrytis can be a problem.
Grapes for inexpensive sparkling wines are grown in Riverland, Riverina, and Murray-Darling, labelled as “South Eastern Australia”. Irrigation and mechanisation.
Shiraz is grown in warm-climate regions, especially Central Victoria, Barossa Valley and McLaren Vale. Richness and intensity of flavours (grapes are picked at the same time as for still wines). High hields (inexpensive wines) to moderate (premium wines).
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Traditional method in Australia
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Several styles (non-vintage, vintage, prestige cuvée, rosé). Different ageing on the lees. Premium producers look to Champagne. The best producers have long lees ageing (3 or 4 years) and late disgorged wines (more than 6 years) are led by producers such as Jansz and Arras.
In Tasmania, most of the largest producers pressing the grapes on the island and complete the winemaking on the mainland. Refrigeration of the juice.
Premium traditional method has medium(+) to high acidity and medium alcohol. Body and flavour intensity can vary from medium(-) to full. The lighter styles will be softly fruity whereas the richer styles will have prominent autolytic notes. Malo is possible.
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Transfer, tank and carbonation in Australia
Inexpensive and mid-priced sparkling wines are made across a number of cool, moderate, and warm climate regions. Different varieties such as Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Moscato, and Glera/Prosecco.
Medium to medium(+) acidity, dry to medium-sweet, low to medium alcohol and light to medium body. From citrus fruit to riper peach and apricot. Little or no autolytic character (only in transfer method). The main brands are Brown Brothers, Jacob’s Creek, and Yellowglen.
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Sparkling Shiraz
Made like a normal still red wine, also malo, can or cannot age in oak. Very good to outstanding quality by the traditional method. Acceptable to good wines by transfer, tank method, or carbonation. Slightly higher dosage than Brut white and rosé sparkling wines due to the presence of drying tannin.
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Sparkling Moscato in Australia
Sparkling Moscato, especially pink Moscato, is a growing sector in the domestic market. Grapes from different regions (tending warmer climates). Higher quality, smaller production, tank method. Most inexpensive to mid-priced Moscato is made by carbonation. Low in alcohol with medium acidity, off-dry to sweet. Fruity style with classic Moscato grapey flavours. Acceptable to good quality.
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Autralian Prosecco
The main region is the King Valley. In Australia it continues to be labelled as Prosecco, the variety was planted in Australia before Italy changed the use of the name from a variety name to the name of a PDO. The first Aussie Prosecco was released by Dal Zotto in 2004. Italy changed the use of the word from in 2009. If exported to the EU, these wine must be labelled as Glera. The King Valley region is assisting in ongoing legal representation to be able to use the name Prosecco in other markets, arguing that it’s a variety and not a region.
Prosecco is made by the tank method to obtain a lightly fruity style. Medium(+) acidity, medium(-) to medium alcohol, light to medium body with delicate peach flavours. Off-dry to medium-dry. It’s predominantly made by small producers with a focus on quality. Good to very good quality. Some carbonated wines also.
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Pet Nat
Made by small and natural winemakers in several regions from several varieties. Small quantities, white, red or rosé. Can be quite cloudy, with varying levels of pressure from slightly sparkling to fully sparkling. Dry with medium(+)acidity and medium alcohol. Light to medium(+) body and medium to pronounced flavour intensity. Often yeasty characteristics along with fruit flavours.
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The typical style for New Zealander sparkling wines
Traditional method, mid- to premium prices. Medium intensity aromas of yellow apple and lemon fruit with light toasty autolytic notes and high acidity. Good to very good quality (some outstanding examples). Brut style.
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Regions for New Zealander sparkling wines
The cooler climes of New Zealand’s South Island are better suited to elegant sparkling wine styles with crisp acidity.
Marlborough has the highest production of grapes. Central Otago has a handful of ambitious sparkling wine producers. Gisborne (North Island) for large-volume brands with fuller bodied, less acidity and less finesse.
Harvest (10-11% potential alcohol) happens two weeks before still wines and it’s good because autumn rain and the tail end of tropical cyclones can be a challenge later in the harvest.
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The typical style for sparkling Sauvignon Blanc from New Zealand
Sauvignon Blanc by carbonation has medium(+) intensity primary green capsicum and passion fruit notes, no autolytic notes, high acidity and medium(-) length.
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Winemaking techniques for New Zealander sparkling wines
Typical blend is Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. Traditional method for the finest expressions, also tank method for the largest volumes and carbonation for inexpensive wines.
Small producers use their own fruit.
Many wineries send the wines to contractors for tirage addition. Bottles come back for second fermentation and ageing. In the end, they go back to contractors for disgorging and liqueur d’expédition.
Hand harvest for top quality producers. Cultured yeasts and steel tanks for the purity of the grapes. Usually malo (high acidity). Usually 18 months on the less. Some wineries use reserve wines in non-vintage wines.
No. 1 Family Estate was the pioneer.
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The reasons because Crémant was introduced
- In 1985 the EU banned the term "méthode champenoise" to describe sparkling wines made using the traditional method.
- The ban was introduced to protect the Champagne AOC.
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Australian sparkling red wines
Not only from Shiraz. Deep colour, from ruby to garnet. Medium(-) to medium acidity, medium(+) to high alcohol, medium but ripe and soft tannins, balanced by dosage (more than 20 g/L). Medium- to full-bodied with medium to pronounced intensity. Fruity style or oak complexity. Autolytic notes are masked by other flavours. Some late disgorged wines.
