Statistics and Research Design Flashcards
1
Q
Research can be categorized as:
a. qualitative
b. quantitative
c. both a. and b.
A
c. Research is the systematic study and investigation of a
phenomenon in order to reveal, analyze, and establish facts,
principles, and theories. The various methods of research can
be categorized as qualitative or quantitative.
2
Q
True or False. Qualitative research is conducted to obtain a
holistic description of the naturalistic, contextual approach,
emphasizes understanding and interpretation, and is
primarily inductive in nature. The investigator’s perspective
is an important element of the research process.
A
True. Qualitative Research is conducted to obtain holistic
(relating to or concerned with wholes or with complete
systems rather than with the analysis of, treatment of, or
dissection into parts) description of the quality of
relationships, actions, situations, or other phenomena. It uses
a naturalistic approach whereby (subject(s) is/are observed
without interruption under normal or natural circumstances),
contextual approach, emphasizes understanding and
interpretation, and is primarily inductive (ideas are
processed from the specific to the general in nature).
3
Q
True or False. Quantitative research is conducted to obtain
numerical data on variables. It makes use of empirical
methods and statistical procedures, emphasizes prediction,
generalizability, and causality, and is primarily deductive.
A
True. Quantitative Research is conducted to obtain numerical
data on variables. It makes use of empirical (capable of
being verified or disproved by observation or experiment)
methods and statistical procedures, emphasizes prediction,
generalizability, and causality, and is primarily
deductive (ideas are processed from the general to the
specific).
4
Q
Quantitative research is further categorized as
nonexperimental or _____.
A
experimental
5
Q
Nonexperimental research is conducted to:
a. to test hypotheses
b. collect data on variables rather than to test hypotheses
c. is emphasized on the EPPP
A
b. nonexperimental (descriptive) research is conducted to
collect data on variables rather than to test hypotheses about
the relationship between them. Correlational research,
archival research, case studies, and surveys are ordinarily
nonexperimental.
6
Q
Experimental research is conducted to:
a. to test hypotheses
b. collect data on variables rather than to test hypotheses
c. is emphasized on the EPPP
d. both a. and c.
A
d. Experimental research is conducted to test hypotheses
about the effects of one or more independent variables on
one or more dependent variables. Experimental research is
emphasized on the psychology licensing exam.
7
Q
Name the steps to Planning and Conducting Experimental Research using the acronym: Dumb Calculations Stop-up Cranial Arterial Reasoning
A
- Developing An Idea Into A Testable Hypothesis
- Choosing An Appropriate Research Design
- Selecting A Sample
- Conducting The Study
- Analyzing The Obtained Data
- Reporting The Results
8
Q
a _____ is any characteristic, behavior, event, or other
phenomenon that is capable of varying or existing in at least
two different states, conditions, or levels (e.g., gender).
A
variable
9
Q
A _____ is a characteristic that is restricted to a single state
or condition.
A
Constant; For example, gender may be treated as a constant
if only male subjects are used in the study.
10
Q
Researchers normally distinguish between two types of
variables: A person’s status on the _____ variable is assumed
to affect his/her status on the ______ variable.
A
independent; dependent
11
Q
If a psychologist conducts a research study to test the
hypothesis that children who watch violent films are more
aggressive than children who do not, the study’s independent
variable is ______.
A
To answer this question correctly you would need to ask
yourself, “What are the effects of (INDEPENDENT
VARIABLE) on (DEPENDENT VARIABLE)?” The answer
would be: What are the effects of (films: violent vs.
nonviolent) on aggressiveness.
12
Q
To assess the effects of an independent variable on a
dependent variable, the independent variable must have at
least
a. one level
b. two levels
c. three levels
A
b. two levels; The IV(s) affect(s) or alter(s) status of the
dependent variable (DV); it is manipulated by the
experimenter; Each IV must have at least two levels, which
provides a point for comparison. Comparisons on the DV are
made across different levels of the IV. When the
psychologist is using only one variable as the IV, then the
effects of that IV may be compared by using a self-control
procedure whereby the effects of no treatment on that
variable may serve as the second variable.
13
Q
The dependent variable is:
a. manipulated
b. measured
c. left alone
d. not necessary
A
Dependent Variable (DV, outcome, Y) n status on this variable seems to depend on the status of another variable (the IV). It is considered the outcome of the study and is measured by pretests and posttests. This variable is not manipulated, but measured only
14
Q
To identify the IV(s) and DV(s) in a study, translate the
information into a question:
What is the effect of _____ on _____ ?
A
Independent Variable; Dependent Variable
15
Q
When using manipulated independent variables, the
psychologist will be able to determine which levels of the
IVs will be administered to subjects. However, in some
studies, the psychologist cannot control the independent
variables. When this happens, the IVs are considered ______
variables.
a. constant
b. organismic
c. dependent
A
b. organismic; The use of organismic (a complex structure of
interdependent and subordinate elements whose relations and
properties are largely determined by their function in the
whole) variables also limits the study in that the psychologist
will not be able to determine if any observed relationships
are causal in nature.
16
Q
The IV and DV must be defined in terms of the method or
process that will be used to identify or measure them. Once
this is done, the variables are said to be:
a. descriptively analyzed
b. operationally defined
c. appropriate for the study
A
b. operationally defined; Each variable must be defined and
measured(e.g., score on a measure such as the WAIS or use
of observation).
17
Q
An important decision when using _____ to identify or
measure a behavior is how to record that behavior.
a. observation
b. quasi experimental research
c. experimental research
A
a. Whenever observation is used to identify or measure
behavior, an important decision is how to record or measure
that behavior.
18
Q
True or False. When using observational methods to obtain
measures on the DV, there are four main ways to measure
variables: content analysis, behavioral sampling, situational
sampling, sequential analysis.
A
True. Content Analysis organizing the data into categories;
Behavioral Sampling systematic method for sampling and
recording the frequency or duration of the behavior and/or
rating the behavior in terms of its qualitative characteristics;
Situational Sampling alternative to behavioral sampling,
used when the goal of the study is to observe a behavior in a
number of settings, helps increase generalizability of the
study’s findings; Sequential Analysis entails coding of
behavioral sequences rather than isolated behavioral events
and is used to study complex social behaviors.
19
Q
_____ analysis involves recording a subject’s verbalizations
when she has been instructed to “think aloud” while solving
a complex cognitive problem
A
Protocol Analysis- subject is asked to think aloud while
solving a problem. The subject’s verbalizations are recorded
and coded in term of relevant categories. Protocol = (record
of a document or transaction).
20
Q
_____ recording is particularly useful when the target
behavior has no clear beginning or end.
A
Interval recording-observing a behavior for a period of
time that has been divided into equal intervals (e.g., a
30-minute period that has been divided into 15-second
intervals) and recording whether or not the behavior occurs
during each interval. Use for studying complex interactions
and behaviors that have no clear beginning or end such as
laughing, talking, or playing.
21
Q
_____ sampling is an effective technique when the behavior
occurs infrequently or leaves a permanent record.
A
Event Sampling (recording)- observing a behavior each
time that it occurs. This technique is good for studying
behaviors that occur infrequently, that have a long duration,
or that leave a permanent record or other product (e.g., a
completed worksheet or test).
22
Q
Experimental research is categorized as either true
experimental or quasi-experimental. The primary feature that
distinguishes true experimental research from
quasi-experimental research is that, in the former, the
experimenter can randomly _____ subjects to different
treatment groups:
a. assign
b. rotate
A
a. assigne subjects; True Experimental Research provides the
amount of control necessary to conclude that the observed
variability in the dependent variable is actually caused by
variability in a independent variable. In order for the study to
be true experimental research, the psychologist must be
able to:
·Control the experimental
·Determine which levels of the IV to include
·Randomly assign subjects to different treatment groups (i.e.,
to different levels of the IV)
23
Q
Radomization of subjects to different treatment groups
allows the experimenter to be more certain that subjects in
different groups are initially similar and, consequently, that
any observed differences between then on the _____
variable(s) were caused by the _____ variable(s):
a. dependent; independent
b. independent; dependent
c. constant; organismic
A
a. dependent; independent
Random Assignment (randomization) helps ensure that any
observed differences between groups on the dependent
variable are actually due to the effects of the IV.
24
Q
True or False. When using Quasi-experimental Research, an
experimenter can sometimes control the assignment of
subjects to treatment groups.
A
False. Quasi-experimental Research- experimenter cannot
control the assignment of subjects to treatment groups; must
use intact or (pre-existing) groups or a single treatment
group.
25
When a researcher must use intact or (pre-existing) groups or
a single treatment group, s/he is doing:
a. experimental research
b. quasi-experimental research
b. Quasi-experimental Research- experimenter cannot
control the assignment of subjects to treatment groups; must
use intact or (pre-existing) groups or a single treatment
group.
26
With regard to standard sampling techniques, when using
this method, every member of the population has an equal
chance of being included in the sample, and the selection of
one member from the population has no effect on the
selection of another member:
a. cluster sampling
b. stratified random sampling
c. simple random sampling
b. Simple Random Sampling
-Each member of population has an equal chance of being
included in the sample
-Selection of one member from the population has no effect
on the selection of another member
27
With regard to standard sampling techniques, the
experiementor might want to use this method when the
population of interest varies in terms of specific "strata"
(characteristics) that are relevant to the research hypothesis:
a. cluster sampling
b. stratified random sampling
c. simple random sampling
b. Stratified Random Sampling
-Use when the population varies in terms of strata
(characteristics) that are relevant to study
-Divide the population into the appropriate strata (e.g., SES,
race, age, etc.) and randomly select subjects from each
stratum.
28
With regard to standard sampling techniques, the
experimenter might want to use this method when it is not
possible to identify or obtain access to the entire population
of interest:
a. cluster sampling
b. stratified random sampling
c. simple random sampling
a. Cluster Sampling
-Select units (clusters) of individuals that are relevant to
study
-Include all individual in those units/clusters or randomly
select individuals from units/cluster (Multistage Cluster
Sampling) when it is not possible to identify or obtain access
to the entire population of interest.
29
Explain the difference between random assignment and
| random selection.
Both are important in research but for different reasons.
Random Assignment allows investigator to be more
certain that an observed effect on the DV was actually
caused by the IV.
Random Selection enables the investigator to generalize
his/her findings from the sample to the population.
It is random assignment that distinguishes true experimental
research from quasi-experimental research.
30
An educational psychologist believes that children are better
spellers if they are provided with "spaced" practice rather
than "massed" practice whiel they are learning new words.
Identify the IV and DV:
IV(s):
DV(s):
IV(s): types of practice
| DV(s): spelling ability
31
Dr. Mean wants to test the hypothesis that a mastery learning
technique is more effective than the traditional instructional
approach for teaching college algebra but that its
effectiveness is a function of a student's need for
achievement and math aptitude.
IV(s):
DV(s):
IV(s):instuctional method, need for achievement, math
aptitude
DV(s): algebra achievement
32
Dr. Freud wants to compare the effects of
cognitive-behavioral therapy, client-centered therapy, and
psychoanalytic psychotherapy for reducing test anxiety in
high- and low-achieving college students as measured by a
physiological measure of anxiety and the Taylor Manifest
Anxiety Scale. Identify the IV and DV:
IV(s):
DV(s):
IV(s): type of therapy, achievement level
DV(s): physiological measure of anxiety, Taylor Manifest
Anxiety Scale
33
A school principal suspects that a teacher's expectations
about a student's academic performance will have a
"self-fulfilling prophecy" effect on the student's own
expectations and actual academic achievement but that the
magnitude of the effect will depend on the student's level of
self-esteem. Identify the IV and DV:
IV(s):
DV(s):
IV(s): teacher expectations, student self-esteem
| DV(s): student expectations, student achievement
34
A researcher asks a sample of male and female mental health
professionals to describe a "healthy male adult" and a
"healthy female adult." Based on his review of the literature,
he expects that the adjectives used by both male and female
professionals to describe a healthy male will be more
positive than the adjectives used to describe a healthy
female. Identify the IV and DV:
IV(s):
DV(s):
IV(s):gender of mental health professionals, gender of
healthy adult
DV(s): descriptive adjectives of healthy adult
35
To investigate the effects of watching violent movies on
aggressive behavior, Dr. Hatchet has male and female
children who have been identified as either very aggressive,
moderately aggressive, mildly aggressive, or nonaggressive
watch either a violent or neutral film. Following the film, he
observes each child during a 60-minute free play period and
counts the number of aggressive acts the child exhibits:
Identify the IV and DV:
IV(s):
DV(s):
IV(s):initial aggressiveness, gender, type of film
| DV(s): number of aggressive acts
36
An investigator compares the performance of a single group
of subjects before and after exposure to an intervention. This
study is a (true/quasi-) experimental study.
quasi experimental study because experimenter could not
control the assignment of subjects to treatment groups
because s/he had to use an intact or (pre-existing) groups or a
single treatment group.
37
Random (selection/assignment) of subjects is critical for
| ensuring the generalizability of research results.
selection;
Random Assignment Vs. Random Selection
Random Assignment allows investigator to be more
certain that an observed effect on the DV was actually
caused by the IV.
Random Selection enables the investigator to generalize
his/her findings from the sample to the population.
38
When a study's independent variable is an organismic
variable, the study is considered to be a (true/quasi-)
experimental study.
quasi-experimental
39
```
When using protocol analysis, an investigator is interested
in:
a. infrequent behaviors
b. verbal reports
c. historical events
```
b. verbal reports; Protocol Analysis- subject is asked to
think aloud while solving a problem. The subject's
verbalizations are recorded and coded in term of relevant
categories.
a. INCORRECT - Event Sampling is good for studying
behaviors that occur infrequently, that have a long duration,
or that leave a permanent record or other product (e.g., a
completed worksheet or test).
40
A psychologist designs a study to assess prosocial behaviors
(smiling, making eye contact, etc.) in infants while
interacting with caregivers. the best sampling (recording)
technique for these behaviors would be:
a. interval
b. cluster
c. event
a. Interval recording- observing a behavior for a period of
time that has been divided into equal intervals (e.g., a
30-minute period that has been divided into 15-second
intervals) and recording whether or not the behavior occurs
during each interval. Use for studying complex interactions
and behaviors that have no clear beginning or end such as
laughing, talking, or playing.
b. no such thing
c. INCORRECT - Event Sampling (recording)- observing a
behavior each time that it occurs. This technique is good for
studying behaviors that occur infrequently, that have a long
duration, or that leave a permanent record or other product
(e.g., a completed worksheet or test).
41
The "hallmark" of true (versus quasi-) experimental research
is:
a. the ability to randomly select subjects from the population
b. the ability to randomly assign subjects to treatment groups
c. the ability to test hypotheses about the relationship
between variables.
b
42
To obtain a sample of elementary school children for your
research study, you randomly select several schools from the
population of schools and then randomly choose students
from the schools that you have selected. This is an example
of:
a. quota sampling
b. stratified random sampling
c. cluster sampling
c. cluster sampling; Cluster Sampling
-Select units (clusters) of individuals that are relevant to
study
-Include all individual in those units/clusters or randomly
select individuals from units/cluster (Multistage Cluster
Sampling) when it is not possible to identify or obtain access
to the entire population of interest.
43
```
Which of the following would be most useful for studying
behaviors that leave a permanent record:
a. time sampling
b. situation sampling
c. event recording
```
c. event recording; Event Sampling (recording)- observing
a behavior each time that it occurs. This technique is good
for studying behaviors that occur infrequently, that have a
long duration, or that leave a permanent record or other
product (e.g., a completed worksheet or test).
44
When conducting an experimental research study, an
experimenter wants a design that will maximize variability in
the dependent variable that is due to the _____, control
variability due to _____, and minimize variability due to
_____.
independent variable, extraneous variables (systematic
| error), random error
45
Experimental variability, or variability in the dependent
variable that is due to the _____ variable, is maximized when
groups are made as different as possible with respect to that
variable, while variability due to _____ error is minimized
by ensuring that random fluctuations in subjects, conditions,
and measuring instruments are eliminated or equalized
among all treatment groups.
independent, random
True experimental research helps an investigator minimize
the effects of random (unpredictable) fluctuations in
subjects, conditions, and measuring instruments.
Tip! It is important to remember to pick a design that
minimizes the effects of both systematic error (error due to
extraneous variables) and random error.
46
A number of techniques are used to control the effects of
extraneous variables, which are irrelevant to the research
hypothesis but correlate with the _____ variable.
dependent
Extraneous (Confounding) Variable- source of systematic
error; variable that is irrelevant to the purpose of the research
study, confounds its results because it has a systematic effect
(correlates with) the DV.
47
Randomization, or the random _____ of subject to different
levels of the independent variable, is considered the most
powerful method of control because it helps ensure that
groups are initially _____ with regard to all known and
unknown extraneous variables.
assignment; equivalent
Random Assignment of Subjects to Treatment Groups
(Randomization)
·Equalizes the effects of extraneous variables
·Most powerful method of experimental control
·Primary characteristic of true experimental research
48
Matching is useful for controlling an extraneous variable
when the number of subjects is too _____ to guarantee that
random assignment will equalize the groups in terms of an
extraneous variable.
small; Matching Subjects on the Extraneous Variable
(Matching)
·Match subjects in terms of their status on that variable
·Randomly assign match subjects to one of the treatment
groups
·Useful when = sample size is too small to guarantee that
random assignment will equalize the groups with regard to
the effects of the extraneous variable
49
Blocking is similar to matching except that subjects are not
individually matched but are _____ in terms of their status
on the extraneous variable, and subjects within each _____
are randomly assigned to one of the treatment groups.
blocked (grouped); block
Building the Extraneous Variable into the Study (Blocking)
·Include extraneous variable as IV so that its effects on the
DV may be statistically analyzed
·Subjects are grouped (blocked) on the basis of their status
on the extraneous variable
·Subjects are then randomly assigned to one of the treatment
groups
50
The ANCOVA or other statistical technique can be used to
| statistically _____ the effects of an extraneous variable.
remove, Statistical Control of the Extraneous Variable -
ANCOVA (Analysis of Covariance) or other statistical
technique to remove variability (equalizing all subjects with
regard to their status on that variable) in the DV.
51
When a study has _____ validity, the experimenter can
conclude that observations in the dependent variable were
caused by variations in the independent variable rather than
by other factors:
a. internal
b. external
c. face
a. internal; a study has internal validity when it allows an
investigator to determine if there is a causal relationship
between independent and dependent variables.
52
Internal validity is threatened when the investigator cannot:
a. Control the effects of the IV
b. Control the effects of extraneous variables
c. Minimize the effects of random error
d. all of the above
d
53
_____ refers to an external event that is irrelevant to the
research hypothesis but that occurs duing the course of a
study and affects the subjects' status on the dependent
variable:
a. history
b. maturation
a. history; History- external event systematically affects the
status of subjects on the DV. History = a significant event
that effects people.
54
_____ refers to changes that occur within subjects during the
course of a study as the result of the passage of time and that
have a systematic effect on the DV:
a. history
b. maturation
b. maturation; Maturation- any biological or psychological
change that occurs within subjects during the course of a
study as a function of time and is not relevant to the research
hypothesis (e.g., fatigue, boredom, hunger, physical growth,
intellectual growth). Maturation = the emergence of personal
and behavioral characteristics through growth processes.
55
Statistical _____ is the tendency for very high and low
| scores to move toward the mean on retesting.
regression; Statistical Regression- tendency of extreme
scores on a measure to regress or move toward the mean
when the measure is readministered to the same group of
people. Statistical regression threatens a study's internal
validity whenever subjects have been selected because of
their extreme status on the dependent variable.
56
Statistical regression threatens a study's internal validity
whenever subjects are selected to participate in the study
because of their extreme scores on the _____ variable
measure
dependent
57
_____ is a problem when subjects in different treatment
groups are not similar in terms of important characteristics at
the onset of the study.
selection; Selection- method used to assign subjects results
in systematic differences between the groups at the
beginning of the study (e.g., forced to use intact groups).
58
_____ limits the study's internal validity when subjects who
drop out of the study differ in some important way from
subjects who remain in the study for its duration.
attrition
59
_____ can interact with history and threaten a study's internal
validity if one group of subjects is exposed to an external
condition that does not affect subjects in other groups.
selection; Interactions With Selection- there would be an
interaction between selection and history, for example, when
one group of subjects is unintentionally exposed to an
external event that does not affect subject in other groups.
60
To control for maturation, the experimenter could:
a. Include more than one group and randomly assign subjects
to groups
b. Use single-group time-series design
c. Include more than one group
d. both a. and b.
d. both a. and b.; Maturation- any biological or
psychological change that occurs within subjects during the
course of a study as a function of time and is not relevant to
the research hypothesis (e.g., fatigue, boredom, hunger,
physical growth, intellectual growth). Maturation = the
emergence of personal and behavioral characteristics through
growth processes.
Control:
·Include more than one group and randomly assign subjects
to groups
·Use single-group time-series design
61
To control for history, the experimenter would:
a. Design measure in a way that minimizes memory and
practice effects
b. Include more than one group
c. Randomly assign subjects to groups
d. both b. and c.
History- external event systematically affects the status of
subjects on the DV. History = a significant event that effects
people.
Control:
·Include more than one group- history is more problematic
when study includes only one group and the event occurs at
the same time that the independent variable is applied.
·Randomly assign subjects to groups
62
To control for the effects of testing, the experimenter would:
a. Administer the DV measure only once
b. Design measure in a way that minimizes memory and
practice effects
c. Include at least two groups in study
d. all of the above
d. all of the above
Testing- exposure to a test might later impact the subjects
performance on subsequent tests (tests that are
readministered)
Control:
·Administer the DV measure only once
·Design measure in a way that minimizes memory and
practice effects
·Include at least two groups in study
63
To control for the effects of instrumentation, the
experimenter could:
a. Include more than one group in study
b. use the same measuring devices and procedures with all
subjects
c. both a. and b.
c. both a. and b.
Instrumentation- changes in the accuracy or sensitivity of
measuring devices or procedures. (e.g., rater's accuracy
improves over time)
Control:
·Include more than one group in study
·Ensure that all groups are subject to the same
instrumentation effects by using the same measuring devices
and procedures with all subjects
64
To control for statistical regression, you could:
a. include only extreme scores
b. NOT include extreme scores
c. include another group that consists of subjects who are
similarly extreme.
d. Either b. or c.
d. Either b. or c.
Statistical Regression- tendency of extreme scores on a
measure to regress or move toward the mean when the
measure is readministered to the same group of people.
Statistical regression threatens a studyns internal validity
whenever subjects have been selected because of their
extreme status on the dependent variable.
Control:
·NOT including only extreme scorers in the study
·Include more than one group and ensure that all groups
consist of subjects who are similarly extreme.
65
To control from selection affects, you could:
a. Randomly assigning subjects to groups
b. Administering pretest to subjects to determine if the
groups differ initially with regard to the DV
c. either a. or b.
c. either a. or b.
Selection- method used to assign subjects results in
systematic differences between the groups at the beginning
of the study (e.g., forced to use intact groups). Use of the
term selection here is somewhat misleading as we are really
talking about assignment.
Control:
·Randomly assigning subjects to groups, or when not
possible,
·Administering pretest to subjects to determine if the groups
differ initially with regard to the DV
66
True or false. Pretest can help with attrition rates as they can
determine if dropouts and non-dropouts differ with regard to
their initial status on the DV.
Attrition (Mortality)- subjects who drop out of one group
differ in an important way from subjects who drop out of
other groups.
Control:
· Pretest can help determine if dropouts and non-dropouts
differ with regard to their initial status on the DV.
67
When blocking is used to control an extraneous variable, the
extraneous variable is treated as an independent variable, and
its effects on the _____ variable are statistically analyzed.
dependent; blocking is a method used to control an
extraneous variable when an investigator wants to
statistically analyze its main and interaction effects on the
DV. Involves blocking (grouping)subjects with regard to
their status on the extraneous variable and then randomly
assigning subjects in each block to one of the treatment
groups.
68
In a research study, variability in the dependent variable that
is attributable to the _____ variable is referred to as
"experimental variability."
independent variable
69
External validity refers to the _____ of the results of a
| research study.
generalizability
70
The random selection of subjects for a research study is most
useful for maximizing a study's _____ validity, while
random assignment of subjects to treatment groups is most
important for ensuring that the study has adequate _____
validity
external; internal
71
When using the analysis of covariance, the "covariate":
a. is treated as an independent variable
b. is an extraneous variable
c. is the dependent variable
b. is an extraneous variable;
Statistical Control of the Extraneous Variable
ANCOVA (Analysis of Covariance) or other statistical
technique to remove variability (equalizing all subjects with
regard to their status on that variable) in the DV.
72
Extraneous variables:
a. correlate with the DV
b. correlate with the IV
c. correlate with the DV and the IV
a. correlate with the DV
73
Which of the following is an example of demand
characteristics:
a. an experimenter double-checks his data whenever it
doesn't conform to the research hypothesis
b. subjects alter their behaviors in ways that help them avoid
negative evaluations by the experiment
c. subtle cues in the environment communicate to subjects
what behaviors are expected of them
c. demand characteristics are cues in the experimental
situation that inform research participants of how they are
expected to behave during the course of the study. Demand
characteristics can threaten a study's internal and external
validity.
74
Counterbalancing is used to control:
a. order effects
b. statistical regression
c. demand characteristics
a. order effects;
Multiple Treatment Interference (Order Effects, Carryover
Effects)- when a study involves exposing each subject to
two or more levels of an independent variable (i.e., when the
study utilizes within-subjects design) the effects of one level
of the independent variable can be affected by previous
exposure to another level.
Control:
·Counterbalanced design- different subjects (or groups of
subjects) receive the levels of the IV in a different order
(e.g., Latin Square Design).
75
A psychologist evaluates the effects of a 15-month training
program on the conservation skills of preoperational children
by administering a measure of conservation to the same
group of children before and at the end of the training. The
psychologist finds that a significantly greater number of
children conserve after the program than before. The biggest
threat to this study's internal validity is:
a. maturation
b. history
c. selection
a. Maturation reflects changes that occur within subjects as
| the result of the passage of time.
76
Dr. Dogood includes only students who have very low GPAs
in her study that is designed to test the hypothesis that a
motivational training course will improve academic
achievement. The biggest threat to this study's internal
validity is:
a. reactivity
b. statistical regression
c. maturation
b. Statistical Regression- tendency of extreme scores on a
measure of regression or move toward the mean when the
measure is readministered to the same group of people.
Statistical regression threatens a study's internal validity
whenever subjects have been selected because of their
extreme status on the dependent variable.
Control:
·NOT including only extreme scorers in the study
·Include more than one group and ensure that all groups
consist of subjects who are similarly extreme.
77
An experimenter compares the effects of three different diets
on weight loss by assessing overweight subjects either to
Diet A, Diet B, or Diet C and then determining each subject's
weight one week, six weeks, and three months after
beginning the diet. This study is an example of which type of
research design:
a. between groups
b. within subjects
c. mixed
c. mixed designs are research designs in which both
between-groups and within-subjects comparisons can be
made.
78
When a study has both main and interaction effects:
a. the main effects take precedence over the interaction
effects
b. the main effects should be interpreted in light of the
interaction effects
c. the main and interaction effects should be interpreted
separately
b
79
Use of an ABAB design involves:
a. applying two different treatments to subjects at two
different times
b. applying a single treatment to subjects at two different
times
c. applying a single treatment to two different behaviors
b
80
```
The single-subject AB design is most similar to which of the
following group designs:
a. counterbalanced
b. one-group time-series
c. factorial
```
b
81
A factorial design includes two or more _____.
independent variables; the name given to any research design
that includes two or more "factors" (IVs). Factorial designs
permit analysis of main and interaction effects. (An
interaction occurs when the impact of one IV differs at
different levels of another variable.)
82
When using a multiple baseline design, a treatment is _____
| applied to the different baselines.
sequentially; A single-subject design that involves
sequentially applyling a treatment to different "baselines"
(e.g., to different behaviors, settings, or subjects). Useful
when a reversal design would be impractical or unethical
83
Single-subject research designs always include at least one
| _____ (A) phase and at least one _____ (B) phase.
baseline (no treatment); treatment
84
An experimenter conducts a study to investigate the effects
of task complexity and motivation on performance and
obtains the following mean scores on a measure of task
performance:
H Motivation L Motivation
Simple Task 50 35
Complex Task 10 25
Based on this data (and assuming that there are the same
number of subjects in each group), you can tentatively
conclude that there is:
a. a main effect of task complexity
b. a main effect of task complexity and a main effect of
motivation
c. a main effect of task complexity and an interaction
c
85
WAIS Scores are composed on a:
a. nominal scale
b. ordinal scale
c. interval scale
d. ratio scale
c
86
Minutes to complete a task, consist of a:
a. nominal scale
b. ordinal scale
c. interval scale
d. ratio scale
d. ratio scale
87
Number of siblings consists of a:
a. nominal scale
b. ordinal scale
c. interval scale
d. ratio scale
d
88
```
Ranking of peers in terms of popularity would occur on
which of the following scales:
a. nominal scale
b. ordinal scale
c. interval scale
d. ratio scale
```
b
89
```
College level (freshman, sophomore, junior, senior) would
occur on which of the following scale:
a. nominal scale
b. ordinal scale
c. interval scale
d. ratio scale
```
b
90
```
Althletes' numbers would occur on which of the following
scales:
a. nominal scale
b. ordinal scale
c. interval scale
d. ratio scale
```
a
91
The assumption of equal intervals between successive points
on a measurement scale is characteristic of:
a. ordinal, interval, and ratio scales
b. interval and ratio scales
c. ratio scales only
b
92
When using a(n) _____ scale of measurement, a score of
zero indicates that the person has none of the characteristics
being measured:
a. ordinal, interval, or ratio
b. interval or ratio
c. ratio
c
93
When a study's dependent variable is measured on a(n)
_____ scale, a researcher does not have scale values or
scores to analyze but can only compare frequencies
nominal
94
If you can conclude, on the basis of their test scores, that
Keisha has twice as much of a characteristic as Kali, the test
scores represent a(n) _____ scale of measurement.
ratio
95
Which of the following describes the relationship between
the variance and the standard deviation:
a. the variance is twice the size of the standard deviation.
b. the variance is the square root of the standard deviation
c. the variance is the square of the standard deviation
c
96
A teacher administers a test of reading achievement to a 4th
grade class. An inspection of the distribution of scores
indicates that there are very few high scores but many low
scores. If the teacher is most interested in impressing the
administration with how well her students are doing, she will
report which of the following:
a. mean
b. median
c. mode
a.mean. The outcome for the teacher's class' scores indicates
a positively skewed distribution (most of the scores are on
the low end). In positively skewed distributions, the mean is
greater than the median, which, in turn, is greater than the
mode.
Pos skew = mo, md, m, (from lowest to highest)
Neg skew = m, md, mo (from lowest to highest)
97
The test scores of a group of 35 students is fairly evenly
distributed throughout the range of possible scores. The
distribution is best described as:
a. mesokurtic
b. platykurtic
c. leptokurtic
b. platykurtic refers to a "flatter" distribution.
"Kurtosis" refers to the relative peakedness (height or
flatness) of a distribution: when a distribution is more
"peaked" than the normal distribution, it is referred to as
"leptokurtic"; when a distribution is flatter, it is called
"platykurtic" and a normal curve is "mesokurtic".
98
If the dependent variable in a research study is college major,
the _____ is the appropriate measure of central tendency.
mode
99
In a normal distribution, approximately ____ % of
observations fall between the scores that are plus and minus
one standard deviation from the mean.
68
100
In a _____ skewed distribution, the median is greater (has a
| higher value) than the mean.
negatively
101
In the population, an IQ test has a mean of 100 and a
standard deviation of 12, and scores on the test are normally
distributed. Consequently, it is possible to conclude that
about _____& of people have scores between 76 and 124.
95%
102
In a normal distribution, _____ % of scores fall below the
mean and about _____ % of scores fall below the score that
is one standard deviation above the mean.
50; 84
103
A reading test is to be used to select students whose scores
are in the bottom 16% in order to provide them with
appropriate remedial instruction. If scores are normally
distributed, and the distribution's mean is 100 and its
standard deviation is 10, the cutoff score should be set at
_____.
90 (one standard deviation below the mean)
104
True or False. The probability of incorrectly retaining the
| null hypothesis is equal to alpha.
False. This describes beta (type II error) in which a false null
hypothesis is retained.
105
True or False. Power refers to the probability of correctly
| rejecting a false null hypothesis
True.
106
The standard error of the mean is the _____ of the sampling
| distribution of the mean.
standard deviation
107
In the population, a test has a mean of 150 and standard
deviation of 25. If the research study in which the test will
serve as the DV measure includes 100 subjects, the standard
error of the mean is equal to _____.
2.5
108
When alpha is increased from .01 to .05, the probability of
| making a Type II error _____ and power _____.
decreases; increases
109
Based on the results of his study, a researcher concludes that
a workshop did not improve participants' test performance
when, in fact, the workshop did improve performance but the
improvement was not detected due to the unreliability of the
dependent variable measure. The researcher has made a Type
_____ error.
II
110
Accoring to the Central Limit Theorem, the shape of the
sampling distribution of means:
a. is normal only when the population distribution is normal
b. approaches normal as the number of samples increases
regardless of the shape of the population distribution
c. approaches normal as the size of the sample increases
regardless of the shape of the population distribution
c
111
A researcher has analyzed the difference between mean
posttest scores of experimental and control group subjects.
The researcher will be MOST confident that his decision to
reject the null hypothesis is correct if the results of his study
are significant at:
a. the .10 level
b. the .05 level
c. the .01 level
c
112
Less power means:
a. an increased chance of retaining a false null hypothesis
b. a decreased chance of rejecting a true null hypothesis
c. an increased chance of achieving statistical significance
a
113
```
The mean of a theoretical sampling distribution of the mean
is equal to:
a. zero
b. the sample mean
c. the population mean
```
c
114
A researcher conducts a study to test the hypothesis that
level of conflict (high, moderate, or low) and participation in
a communication skills workshop (yes or no) predicts a
couple's relationship status one year later (together or
seperated). This study has:
a. one IV and two nominal DVs
b. two IVs and one ratio DV
c. two IVs and one nominal DV
c
115
The researcher in the above study would use which of the
following tests to analyze the data she has collected:
a. Student's t-test
b. chi-square test
c. analysis of variance
b
116
Dr. V. T. Min is interested in comparing the reaction time (in
seconds) of two groups of men. One group has been placed
on a nutritional supplement for six months: the other group
has received no supplement. This study has:
a. one IV and one ratio DV
b. one IV and one nominal DV
c. one variable
a
117
```
The appropriate statistical test for the data Dr. Min has
collected is:
a. multiple-sample chi-square test
b. Mann-Whitney U Test
c. t-test for independent samples
```
c
118
An experimenter wants to assess the effectiveness of a
training course for improving SAT scores by comparing the
pretest and posttest scores of a group of high school students.
To analyze the data obtained in this study, the experimenter
should use which statistical test:
a. two-way ANOVA
b. t-test for single samples
c. t-test for related samples
c. t-test for related samples
119
You have collected scores on a measure of cognitive
functioning from patients who have and have not received a
diagnosis of schizophrenia and whose families have been
classified as either high, moderate, or low in "expressed
emotion." To analyze the data you have collected, you will
use the:
a. factorial ANOVA
b. one-way ANOVA
c. multiple-sample chi-square test
a. factorial ANOVA
120
The Wicoxon test can be considered a "nonparametric
| alternative" to the t-test for _____ .
correlated (related) samples
121
A researcher will use trend analysis when her study's _____
| is quantitative.
independent variable
122
A psychologist uses a t-test to analyze the data he has
obtained from a single-group pretest-posttest design that
included 29 subjects. The degrees of freedom are _____.
29 - 1 = 28
123
The numerator of the F-ratio is a measure of variability due
to _____ and the denominator is a measure of variability due
to _____ .
treatment and error; error
124
Parametric and nonparametric tests share in common which
of the following assumptions:
a. random assignment of samples to groups
b. random selection of the sample from the population
c. a normally-shaped distribution of DV scores in the
population.
b. random selection of the sample from the population
125
Dr. Frugal decides to use the MANOVA rather than separate
ANOVAs to analyze the data he has collected. Most likely,
this is because Dr. Frugal wants to:
a. statistically remove the effects of systematic error
b. statistically analyze both main and interaction effects
c. increase statistical power
c. increase statistical power
126
A chi-square test would not be the appropriate statistical test
in which of the following situations:
a. the population distribution is non-normal
b. subjects can appear in more than one category
c. a quasi-experimental design has been used
b. subjects can appear in more than one category
127
An experimenter would decide to use a one-way ANOVA
instead of separate t-tests to analyze the data she has
collected in a study involving one IV with four levels
because:
a. she wants to reduce the Type I error rate.
b. she wants to control systematic error
c. her study includes more than one DV
a. she wants to reduce the Type I error rate.
128
```
A _____ (positive/negative) correlation indicates that people
scoring low on one variable tend to obtain high scores on
another variable.
```
negative
129
When both variables are reported in terms of ranks, the
| appropriate correlation coefficient is the _____.
Spearman rho
130
Which of the following would be the best correlation
coefficient when x is cigarette use (smoker vs. non-smoker)
and Y is the number of car accidents:
a. Spearman rho
b. point biserial
c. contingency
b. point biserial
131
The "least squares criterion" is used to:
a. determine the optimal location for the "line of best fit"
b. statistically "partial out" the effects of a third variable
c. identify the criterion group that an examinee most closely
resembles.
a. determine the optimal location for the "line of best fit"
132
To measure the degree of association between two variables
when their relationship is known to be curvilinear, you
should use:
a. eta
b. phi
c. biserial
a. eta
133
A correlation of 0 between X and Y is suggested by a
scattergram when:
a. the variability of Y scores is the same at all values of X
b. the variability of Y scores at all values of X is equal to the
total variability of Y scores
c. the variability of Y scores is less than the variability of X
scores at all values of X
b. the variability of Y scores at all values of X is equal to the
total variabiilty of Y scores
134
Multicollinearity:
a. increases the probability that a correlation coefficient will
be statistically significant
b. refers to high correlations between predictors and is a
problem in multiple regression
c. refers to high correlations between each predictor and the
criterion and is desirable in multiple regression
b. refers to high correlations between predictors and is a
| problem in multiple regression
135
A psychologist wants to use attitude toward the company,
years of experience, and need for achievement to predict
whether a job applicant is likely to be a "successful manager"
or an "unsuccessful manager." The psychologist knows there
is a nonlinear relationship bewteen need for achievement and
success, with a moderate need for achievement being
characteristic of successful managers and a low and high
need for achievement being more characteristic of
unsuccessful managers. The correct multivariate technique
for this situation is:
a. canonical correlation
b. discriminant analysis
c. logistic regression
c. logistic regression
136
Path analysis is used to:
a. test a theory of causal order among a set of variables
b. develop a causal model involving multiple variables
c. identify causal antecedents
a. test a theory of causal order among a set of variables
137
If the correlation between X and Y is .70 this means that
_____ percent of the variability in Y is explained by
variability in X.
49
138
```
If the Pearson r is used to correlate two variables and have a
curvilinear relationship, the correlation coefficient is likely
to _____ (overestimate/underestimate) their true relationship
```
underestimate
139
For your original sample, R-squared equals .64. When you
cross-validate on another sample, R-squared is likely to
_____ .
smaller (less than .64)
140
A school psychologist wants to determine if there is a
significant difference in reading readiness scores between
male and female students in the school's preschool program.
she obtains scores on a standardized reading readiness test
for 17 girls and 13 boys. Which statistical test will be most
appropriate for determining if there is a significant difference
between the scores obtained by boys and girls:
a. two-way ANOVA
b. Student's t-test
c. Kolmogorov test
d. chi-square test for contingency tables
b. A t-test (a.k.a. Student's t-test) is used to compare the
mean scores obtained by two groups.
a. INCORRECT - the two-way ANOVA is used when a
study involves two independent variables. In this study, there
is one IV (gender).
c. INCORRECT - the Kolmogorov test is used iwth a single
sample and ordinal data
d. INCORRECT - the chi-square test is used to analyze
frequency (nominal) data.
141
A multiple regression equation yields a predicted criterion
score for an examinee based on the examinee's scores on the
predictors included in a test battery. when computing a
multiple regression equation, each test is weighted:
a. in direct proportion to its correlation with the criterion and
in inverse proportion to its correlation with the other
predictors in the test battery
b. in inverse proportion to its correlation with the criterion
and in direct proportion to its correlation with the other
predictors in the test battery
c. in direct proportion to its correlation with the criterion and
with the other predictors in the test battery
d. in inverse proportion to its correlation with the criterion
and with the other predictors in the test battery.
a. by computing the multiple regression equation so that each
test is weighted in direct proportion to its correlation with the
criterion and in inverse proportion to its correlation with
other tests, the test with the highest criterion-related validity
and the least amount of overlap (correlation) with the other
tests will be given the largest weight, while the test with the
lowest criterion-related validity and the most overlap with
other tests will be given the smallest weight.
142
During the course of the data analysis, a researcher more
often double-checks results that seem to conflict with her
hypothesis than results that confirm it. This is an example of:
a. the experimenter expectancy effect
b. demand characteristics
c. the Pygmalion Effect
d. a correspondence bias
a. Experimenter expectancy (bias) occurs when the
experimenter's behavior biases the research results in some
(usually unconscious) way so that the results are consistent
with the research hypothesis.
b. INCORRECT - Demand characteristics are cues in the
research situation that communicate to subjects what
behaviors are expected of them. Experimenter expectencies
can act as a source of demand characteristics (although that
wouldn't be the case in this situation).
c. INCORRECT - The Pygmalion Effect (aka the
self-fulfilling or Rosenthal effect) occurs when a person's
expectations about another individual actually produce subtle
changes in the individual's behavior so that the behavior
conforms to the person's expectations.
d. INCORRECT - Correspondence bias is another name for
the fundamental attribution bias, which is the tendency for
observers to attribute another person's behavior to
dispositional (rather than situational) factor
143
If your statistical test has low "power," this also means that:
a. there is low probability of making a Type II error
b. there is high probability of making a Type I error
c. you will not likely obtain statistically significant results
d. you have set the level of significance too high
a. INCORRECT - power is equal to one minus beta, where
beta is equal to the probability of making a Type II error (of
retaining a false null hypothesis). Thus, there is an inverse
relationship between power and a Type II error, and if there
is low power, there's a high probability that a Type II error
will be made.
b. INCORRECT - The easier it is to make a Type II error,
the more difficult it is to make a Type I error. As noted
above, when there is low power, there is a high probability of
making a Type II error. Consequently, there is a low
probability of making a Type I error.
d. INCORRECT - One way to increase power is to increase
the level of significance since this has the effect of
increasing the rejection region. Thus, if you have low power,
you are more likely to have set the level of significance too
low.
144
When conducting a research study, you want to ensure that
you will detect a difference between the treatment group and
the control group. Therefore you wil:
a. decrease error variance by decreasing the magnitude of the
independent variable
b. increase experimental variance by controlling the effects
of extraneous variable
c. increase experimental variance by increasing the
magnitide of the IV
d. decreasing the probability of making a Type II error
(retaining a false null hypothesis) by increasing beta
c
