Task 1 Flashcards
Origins of Scientific Explanation (22 cards)
1
Q
The invention of …
… writing
A
- separately appeared in at least four cultures (China, Egypt, Sumer, America)
- writing = combination of pictogramm and phonograms
- writing records form an external memory —> allows accumulation of knowledge
- Socrates not interested in keeping written records of thought
- long time number of readers limited
- language: productivity; semantically; displacement
2
Q
The invention of …
… numbers
A
- science largely dependent on counting and measuring
- tallies grouped to 5 (because of problem with reading)
- later number systems based on multiples of 10
- slow process
3
Q
The Classical World
- Greeks
- philosophy
A
- around 600 BCE
- Heraclitus —> everything is changing
- Socrates
- Plato —> rationalism; everything driving by 3 things
- Aristotle —> empirism; observation; everything could be explained by the four elements
4
Q
The Classical World
- Greeks
- astronomy
- geometry and medical treatment
- schools of Athen
- deduction vs. induction
A
- astronomy —> Ptolemy
- geometry —> Euclid; medical treatment —> Hippocrates, Galen
- schools of Athen:
- Academy (Plato)
- Lyceum (Aristotle)
- Stoa (self control)
- Garden of Epicurus (enjoyment of simple pleasure)
- deduction (more often correct) vs. induction (never 100% sure)
5
Q
The Post-Roman Development
- Western Roman Empire
A
- largest decline in scientific knowledge
- diminished knowledge of Greek language
- Roman Catholic Church main preserver
- ‘Dark Ages’
- big farming advance
- urbanization
- universities evolved
- reformation (Luther, printings)
- Greeks: Plato suited, Aristotle forbidden
6
Q
Post-Medieval Developments in Western Europe
- (Cathedral) Schools and Universities
A
- increased mobility of scholars
- discovery of Ancient Greek and Arabic texts
- problems with Aristotle: claim about universe, claim about soul
7
Q
Post-Medieval Developments in Western Europe
- Protestant Reformation
A
- rebellion against dominance of Catholic Church —> Martin Luther (1516)
- more importance to eduction, critical thinking, hard work and worldly success
8
Q
Post-Medieval Developments in Western Europe
- Book Printing
A
- first: by 1300
- later: around 1450 —> Johannes Gutenberg
- rapid and massive availability of information
- advantages: cheap copies, availability, no traveling to read, cheaper & easier translation (no mistakes also)
- disadvantages: other ways of stories forgotten)
9
Q
Limits of History Writing
- Biases
- Zeitgeist
- Matthew effect
- hindsight bias
- ethnocentrism
- summaries and interpretations
A
- centered on persons rather than on Zeitgeist
- too much credit given to small number of people
- facts interpreted on basis of what happened afterwards
- too much attention given to contribution of author’s own group (e.g. too much credit to Western parts)
- writers often rely on summaries and interpretations made by other writers
10
Q
Article 1
- Fire
A
- advantages: guarding against animal predators; cooking; killing bacteria
- seen as greatest discovery ever made
- problems with fire: problem of ignition; choice of fuel; extending its range of uses
11
Q
Article 1
- Discovery of …
… pottery
A
- preparation and preservation of most human food
- boiling
- artistic, cultural value
- weakness: easily breakable
12
Q
Article 1
- Discovery of …
… metals
A
- good conductor of electricity
- below melting point: shaping
- social aspect: mirrors, weapons
13
Q
Article 1
- Discovery of …
… glass
A
- 5000 years ago
- social aspect: windows
14
Q
Article 1
- Writing and Scientific Record
A
- writing as scientific tool when became capable of conveying ‘any and all thought’
- purpose of teaching
15
Q
Article 1
- Measurement
A
- fundamental
- all numbers can be assigned to different things —> compare on basis of some property common to all of them, be more accurate
- numbers make science comparable and empirical
- beginning: time, length, weight —> later: Fahrenheit
16
Q
Article 1
- Science and Ancient World
A
- medicine —> compulsive dedication to proactive approach to curing sickness
17
Q
Article 2 - Dunbar
- findings
A
- group size covaries with neocortical volume in nonhuman primates
- they maintain group cohesion through social grooming —> time spent social grooming ist linearly related to group size
18
Q
Article 2
- suggestions
A
- evolution of large groups in human depended on developing a more efficient method for time-sharing processes of social bonding
- language fulfills this requirement
19
Q
Article 2
- results
- group size in modern humans
A
- three size classes:
- small - 30-50
- intermediate - 100-200
- large - 500-2,500
- informal rule in business organization —> 150 max for effective coordination of tasks and information flow
20
Q
Article 2
- results
- grooming and evolution of language
A
- grooming dyadic and time-consuming bonding mechanism and language overcomes limitations
21
Q
Article 2
- results
- language as bonding mechanism -> social intelligence hypothesis
A
- hypothesis: language is a tool for acquisition of social knowledge; allows individuals to spend time with preferred social partners and thus directly observe others’ behavior
22
Q
Article 2
- results
- efficiency of language as bonding mechanism
A
- human conversational group size should be limited to about 3.8 in size, thus one speaker plus 2,8 listeners
—> psychophysical limit
