Task 3

Question 1

Well-defined problems

Answer 1

These have all aspects clearly specified (initial state, possible strategies and the goals

Question 2

Ill-defined problems

Answer 2

These are underspecified, with vagues goals and strategies

Question 3

Knowledge-rich

Answer 3

Requiring specific expertise

Question 4

Knowledge-lean

Answer 4

Information provided in the problem statement

Question 5

Brain activity associated with Insight

Answer 5

• The anterior superior temporal gyrus, associated with processing distant semantic relations between between words
• The anterior cingulate cortex, involved in detecting cognitive conflict and breaking cognitive mindsets
• The prefrontal cortex, responsible for higher cognitive processes

Question 6

Representational change theory

Answer 6

1. Initial Problem Representation
2. Accessing Mental Operators
3. Impasse
4. Restructuring for insight

Question 7

Three ways to restructure for insight

Representational change theory

Answer 7

1) Constraint relaxation: Removing inhibitions on what is considered permissible
2) Re-encoding: Reinterpreting some aspect of the problem representation
3) Elaboration: Adding new information to the representation

Question 8

Incubation

Answer 8

Temporarily shifting attention away from an unsolved problem can lead to
solutions emerging later

Question 9

Mental set

Answer 9

The tendency to use a familiar problem-solving strategy that has proven successful in the past even when it is no longer appropriate

Question 10

Functional fixedness

Answer 10

The inflexible focus on the usual functions of an object in problem solving

Question 11

Hill Climbing

Answer 11

This strategy involves making incremental changes to move closer to a goal state, particularly when the problem structure is unclear

Question 12

Means–Ends Analysis

Answer 12

This heuristic involves identifying the difference between the current state and the goal state, setting subgoals to reduce the difference, and selecting operators to achieve those subgoals.

Question 13

Meta-reasoning

Answer 13

Monitoring process that influence the time, effort and strategies used during reasoning and problem solving

Question 14

Cognitive misers

Answer 14

Cognitive miserliness refers to individuals’ tendency to prefer quick and intuitive Type 1 cognitive processes over slower, controlled Type 2 processes

Question 15

Similarities between problems

Analogical problem solving

Answer 15

1. Superficial similarity (involving solution-irrelevant details)
2. Structural similarity (involving shared causal relations)
3. Procedural similarity (involving common procedures or actions)

Question 16

Sequential Processing Stages

Analogical Problem Solving

Answer 16

1. Encoding: Information concerning the problem stimuli is processed
2. Inferring: Identifying a relation (i.e., similarity) between two items.
3. Mapping: Identifying the overall relational pattern or rule governing the problems
4. Applying: Using the outcome of the mapping process to select the response completing the analogy

Question 17

Three steps of design thinking

Butler et al.

Answer 17

1) Ethnographic research: Observing and understanding users in their real-life environments
2) Ideation: Team brainstorms to generate a wide range of potential solutions to address the identified needs
3) Creation of prototypes: Quick and low-cost representation of their ideas

Question 18

Top-Down Processing

Answer 18

Involves drawing conclusions early based on experience and expectations rather than waiting for direct observation. It leads to the brain filling in gaps based on what it expects to see, potentially
missing important details

Question 19

Encoding Failures

Answer 19

Occur when unimportant or seemingly insignificant details are not captured during observations. The brain tends to focus on the core of a situation while filtering out less critical details.

Question 20

Inattentional Blindness

Answer 20

Refers to the failure to see things in plain sight because one’s attention is directed
elsewhere. This can cause design thinkers to overlook critical information when they have specific problems in mind.

Question 21

Confirmation Bias

Answer 21

Occurs when individuals give more credence to information that confirms their preexisting hypotheses and dismiss data that contradicts their prior beliefs. This bias can lead to misinterpretation of user needs.

Question 22

Fixation

Answer 22

Cognitive trap where individuals become attached to a specific mental set or framework for thinking about a problem. This attachment limits creative thinking, as people tend to focus on tweaking existing ideas rather than generating fresh concepts

Question 23

Fundamental Attribution Error

Answer 23

Involves rationalizing one’s own failures as being due to external circumstances
rather than internal factors. This can lead to designers attributing prototype failures to external factors rather than internal issues.

Question 24

Sunk Cost Trap

Answer 24

Occurs when designers become emotionally invested in their initial idea, making it difficult for them to shift direction even when it’s clear that a change is needed