Well-defined problems
These have all aspects clearly specified (initial state, possible strategies and the goals
Ill-defined problems
These are underspecified, with vagues goals and strategies
Knowledge-rich
Requiring specific expertise
Knowledge-lean
Information provided in the problem statement
Brain activity associated with Insight
- The anterior superior temporal gyrus, associated with processing distant semantic relations between between words
- The anterior cingulate cortex, involved in detecting cognitive conflict and breaking cognitive mindsets
- The prefrontal cortex, responsible for higher cognitive processes
Representational change theory
- Initial Problem Representation
- Accessing Mental Operators
- Impasse
- Restructuring for insight
Three ways to restructure for insight
Representational change theory
1) Constraint relaxation: Removing inhibitions on what is considered permissible
2) Re-encoding: Reinterpreting some aspect of the problem representation
3) Elaboration: Adding new information to the representation
Incubation
Temporarily shifting attention away from an unsolved problem can lead to
solutions emerging later
Mental set
The tendency to use a familiar problem-solving strategy that has proven successful in the past even when it is no longer appropriate
Functional fixedness
The inflexible focus on the usual functions of an object in problem solving
Hill Climbing
This strategy involves making incremental changes to move closer to a goal state, particularly when the problem structure is unclear
Means–Ends Analysis
This heuristic involves identifying the difference between the current state and the goal state, setting subgoals to reduce the difference, and selecting operators to achieve those subgoals.
Meta-reasoning
Monitoring process that influence the time, effort and strategies used during reasoning and problem solving
Cognitive misers
Cognitive miserliness refers to individuals’ tendency to prefer quick and intuitive Type 1 cognitive processes over slower, controlled Type 2 processes
Similarities between problems
Analogical problem solving
- Superficial similarity (involving solution-irrelevant details)
- Structural similarity (involving shared causal relations)
- Procedural similarity (involving common procedures or actions)
Sequential Processing Stages
Analogical Problem Solving
- Encoding: Information concerning the problem stimuli is processed
- Inferring: Identifying a relation (i.e., similarity) between two items.
- Mapping: Identifying the overall relational pattern or rule governing the problems
- Applying: Using the outcome of the mapping process to select the response completing the analogy
Three steps of design thinking
Butler et al.
1) Ethnographic research: Observing and understanding users in their real-life environments
2) Ideation: Team brainstorms to generate a wide range of potential solutions to address the identified needs
3) Creation of prototypes: Quick and low-cost representation of their ideas
Top-Down Processing
Involves drawing conclusions early based on experience and expectations rather than waiting for direct observation. It leads to the brain filling in gaps based on what it expects to see, potentially
missing important details
Encoding Failures
Occur when unimportant or seemingly insignificant details are not captured during observations. The brain tends to focus on the core of a situation while filtering out less critical details.
Inattentional Blindness
Refers to the failure to see things in plain sight because one’s attention is directed
elsewhere. This can cause design thinkers to overlook critical information when they have specific problems in mind.
Confirmation Bias
Occurs when individuals give more credence to information that confirms their preexisting hypotheses and dismiss data that contradicts their prior beliefs. This bias can lead to misinterpretation of user needs.
Fixation
Cognitive trap where individuals become attached to a specific mental set or framework for thinking about a problem. This attachment limits creative thinking, as people tend to focus on tweaking existing ideas rather than generating fresh concepts
Fundamental Attribution Error
Involves rationalizing one’s own failures as being due to external circumstances
rather than internal factors. This can lead to designers attributing prototype failures to external factors rather than internal issues.
Sunk Cost Trap
Occurs when designers become emotionally invested in their initial idea, making it difficult for them to shift direction even when it’s clear that a change is needed
