Task 3

Question 1

What is introspection?

Answer 1

The process of looking into one’s own mind and observing conscious experience.

Question 2

How did behaviorism affect the use of introspection?

Answer 2

Behaviorists distrusted and largely abandoned introspection as a scientific method.

Question 3

What is an introspective verbal report (IRV)?

Answer 3

A verbal description of one’s conscious experience as observed through introspection.

Question 4

What are the three main types of introspection?

Answer 4

Analytic introspection (breaking experience into basic elements), descriptive introspection (describing experiences naturally), and interpretative introspection (seeking causes of experiences).

Question 5

Why is analytic introspection rarely used today?

Answer 5

It was unreliable, lacked practical applications, and was replaced by more objective methods.

Question 6

What are major limitations of introspective reports?

Answer 6

Forgetting, reconstruction errors, difficulty verbalizing experiences, observer effects, and lack of independent verification.

Question 7

What is the “thinking out loud” method?

Answer 7

Subjects continuously verbalize their thoughts while performing a task.

Question 8

How does the thought sampling method work?

Answer 8

Subjects report their thoughts whenever prompted by a random signal.

Question 9

What is the main advantage of retrospective reports?

Answer 9

They do not interfere with ongoing thought processes but are prone to forgetting and reconstruction errors.

Question 10

How does event recording differ from diaries?

Answer 10

Event recording notes specific thoughts at the time they occur, while diaries provide periodic, narrative reports.

Question 11

What is a major problem with group questionnaires in consciousness research?

Answer 11

They are affected by forgetting and social desirability bias.

Question 12

What are the two overarching themes in evaluating techniques for studying visual awareness?

Answer 12

How well they mirror real-world experiences and how effectively they separate awareness from unawareness.

Question 13

Why is it difficult to determine when a stimulus is truly “outside of awareness”?

Answer 13

Threshold-based methods introduce arbitrary boundaries between awareness and unawareness.

Question 14

What is degraded visual stimulation?

Answer 14

Presenting stimuli too briefly or with added noise to prevent conscious perception.

Question 15

How does backward masking work?

Answer 15

A target stimulus is quickly followed by a mask, interrupting conscious processing.

Question 16

What is visual crowding?

Answer 16

When a normally visible object becomes unrecognizable due to nearby stimuli.

Question 17

How does bistable perception help study consciousness?

Answer 17

It allows researchers to study changing awareness while keeping visual input constant.

Question 18

What is an ambiguous figure?

Answer 18

An image that allows for multiple interpretations, leading to spontaneous perceptual reversals.

Question 19

What is binocular rivalry?

Answer 19

When different images are presented to each eye, causing perception to switch between them.

Question 20

What is motion-induced blindness?

Answer 20

A phenomenon where small stationary objects disappear from awareness when surrounded by moving patterns.

Question 21

What is inattentional blindness (IB)?

Answer 21

Failing to see an unexpected object when attention is focused elsewhere.

Question 22

How does change blindness (CB) differ from IB?

Answer 22

CB occurs when people fail to notice visual changes between successive images, even when looking at them.

Question 23

What is attentional blink (AB)?

Answer 23

A brief period after detecting a target where a second target is often missed.

Question 24

Why is introspection considered selective?

Answer 24

Because attention filters which aspects of experience are observed and reported.

Question 25

What is the difference between primary consciousness and reflective consciousness?

Answer 25

Primary consciousness is direct experience, while reflective consciousness involves thinking about experience

Question 26

What is the "stimulus error" in introspection?

Answer 26

The mistake of ascribing meaning to an experience instead of describing its raw sensory elements.

Question 27

How does interpretative introspection differ from descriptive introspection?

Answer 27

Interpretative introspection seeks to explain causes of experiences, while descriptive introspection simply reports them.

Question 28

What is the "Introspective Uncertainty Principle"?

Answer 28

The idea that observing one's own thoughts can change them.

Question 29

How does forgetting limit introspective reports?

Answer 29

Experiences can fade from memory within seconds, making reports inaccurate.

Question 30

What are reconstruction errors in introspection?

Answer 30

The tendency to fill in memory gaps with plausible but inaccurate details.

Question 31

Why are ineffable experiences problematic for introspection?

Answer 31

Because some aspects of consciousness cannot be fully described in words.

Question 32

How does censorship affect introspective reports?

Answer 32

People may deliberately withhold or alter reports due to embarrassment or social desirability.

Question 33

What is the issue of "substituting inferences for observations" in introspection?

Answer 33

People may unknowingly report what they believe should be true rather than their actual experience.

Question 34

Why do many psychologists reject introspection as a research method?

Answer 34

Because its reports cannot be independently verified.

Question 35

How do researchers attempt to validate introspective reports?

Answer 35

By comparing them with behavioral data, physiological measures, and consistency across multiple reports.

Question 36

What are the five key criteria for evaluating techniques that manipulate visual awareness?

Answer 36

Generality, visual field applicability, duration constraints, robustness, and invariant stimulation.

Question 37

Why is it difficult to prove a stimulus is truly "unconscious"?

Answer 37

Because awareness thresholds introduce arbitrary distinctions between conscious and unconscious perception.

Question 38

How does forced-choice testing help determine unconscious perception?

Answer 38

It forces subjects to make perceptual judgments even when they claim they are guessing.

Question 39

How does visual backward masking affect perception?

Answer 39

A mask presented after a stimulus disrupts its conscious processing.

Question 40

Why is crowding an effective method for studying visual awareness?

Answer 40

It makes objects unrecognizable without removing their perceptual effects.

Question 41

What is an example of bistable perception?

Answer 41

The Necker cube, where perception flips between two interpretations.

Question 42

What is the main difference between binocular rivalry and ambiguous figures?

Answer 42

Binocular rivalry involves interocular conflict, while ambiguous figures rely on perceptual ambiguity.

Question 43

How does inattentional blindness occur?

Answer 43

When attention is focused elsewhere, making people fail to notice unexpected stimuli.

Question 44

Why is change blindness a challenge to visual awareness theories?

Answer 44

Because it shows that large visual changes can go unnoticed even with direct observation.

Question 45

What is the "attentional blink"?

Answer 45

A brief period after detecting a first target where a second target is often missed.

Question 46

Why is attentional blink a useful tool for consciousness research?

Answer 46

It allows precise control of stimulus presentation without changing visual conditions.

Question 47

What is the goal of studying NCVA?

Answer 47

To find brain processes specifically responsible for conscious visual perception.

Question 48

Why do some neural events fail as NCVA candidates?

Answer 48

Because they might be related to stimulus processing rather than awareness itself.

Question 49

Why must a theory of NCVA account for stimuli that disappear from awareness?

Answer 49

Because understanding why visible stimuli become "invisible" helps explain conscious perception mechanisms.

Question 50

What additional factors should be studied alongside visual awareness?

Answer 50

Conditions where conscious awareness occurs without external stimulation.