Tectonics Flashcards
1
Q
How thick is the crust?
A
5-70km
2
Q
How thick is the lithosphere?
A
100km
3
Q
How thick is the mantle?
A
2900km
4
Q
How thick is the outer core?
A
2250km
5
Q
How thick is the inner core?
A
1200km
6
Q
Describe oceanic crust
A
Dense, thin (6-10km), forms ocean floors
7
Q
Describe continental crust
A
Less dense, thick (45-50km), makes up land mass
8
Q
Describe the mantle
A
The upper mantle is solid, which along with crust makes up the lithosphere. Below is semi-molten rock which forms the asthenosphere.
9
Q
Describe the outer core
A
Semi-molten, mostly liquid iron and nickel, 4500-6000°C
10
Q
Describe the inner core
A
Solid centre, mostly iron, 6000°C at hottest point
11
Q
How many tectonic plates are there?
A
7 major and 7 minor
12
Q
What are the 4 types of plate boundaries?
A
Divergent (constructive)
Convergent (destructive)
Convergent (collision)
Conservative (transform)
13
Q
What is formed at a divergent plate boundary?
A
-Submarine (underwater) volcanoes
-Shield volcanoes
-Mild, shallow earthquakes
-Mid-ocean ridge chains with transform faults
-Rift valleys
14
Q
Why do major earthquakes occur at convergent margins?
A
Constant subduction of oceanic crust causing friction. Friction causes pressure to build and the pressure is released in the form of a megathrust earthquake up to 9.0M in the Benioff zone.
15
Q
Describe the lava at a divergent (constructive)
sheild volcano?
A
Basaltic- runny, thin, low in silica
16
Q
Describe the lava at a convergent (destructive)
composite volcano?
A
Andesitic- thick, sticky, gas + silica filled
(made of crust)
17
Q
At convergent (destructive) boundaries, why are there explosive volcanoes?
A
Magma pushes through faults
18
Q
At convergent (destructive) plate boundaries, what 2 other features are formed?
A
Ocean trenches + fold mountains
19
Q
What happens at convergent (collision) plate boundaries?
A
There is a subduction of the slightly denser plate, creating a thrust fault
20
Q
What is formed/occurs at convergent (collision) plate boundaries between 2 oceanic plates?
A
Deep ocean trenches, submarine volcanoes, shallow-deep focus earthquakes
21
Q
What is formed/occurs at convergent (collision) plate boundaries between 2 continental plates?
A
High fold mountains and shallow focus earthquakes
22
Q
What happens at a conservative (transform) plate boundaries? Give an eg
A
No volcanoes, but plates slide past each other and stick, creating high pressure and resulting in a powerful, shallow-focus earthquake.
Eg: LA 1994 6.7M
23
Q
Where are 70% of the world’s earthquakes and 75% of the world’s volcanoes located?
A
The pacific ring of fire
24
Q
Where does intra-plate tectonic activity occur?
A
In the middle of plates, not on the boundary
25
Why do intra-plate earthquakes occur and give an example
Old fault lines (oceanic/continental fracture zones) have a weakness that is reactivated
Shropshire 2012
26
Give 2 stats about the 2012 Shropshire intra-plate earthquake
Magnitude 2.5
None were injured
27
Why do intra-plate volcanoes occur and give an example
There is a stationary hot spot on the top of a mantle plume, located at the outer-core, lower-mantle boundary. The plate moves over the hotspot causing a volcano. Volcanic activity ceases + cools as the lithosphere moves. Eg- The hawaiian islands
28
What type of volcanoes formed the Hawaiian islands?
Shield
29
What are the 4 main processes that plate movement is driven by
1. Convection currents
2. Sea floor spreading
3. Subduction
4. Slab pull
30
At what plate boundaries do convection currents occur?
Divergent + convergent
31
Who posed the plate movement theory of convection currents?
McKenzie
32
How does the theory of convection currents work in 3 steps?
1. Radioactive decay in the core produces heat which heats the lower mantle
2. The liquid magma in the lower mantle moves in convection currents in the asthenosphere
3. These convection currents cause plate movement
33
At what plate boundary does sea floor spreading occur?
Divergent
34
Who posed the plate movement theory of sea floor spreading, and who backed this up via paleomagnetism?
Harry Hess, backed up by Vine & Mathews
35
How does the theory of sea floor spreading work?
Magma is forced up from the asthenosphere and creates new oceanic crust and mid-ocean ridges.
36
How is paleomagnetism evidence of sea floor spreading?
The earth's magnetic field changes every 400,000 years and the solidified minerals in the new crust line up with the earth's magnetic field in a symmetrical pattern
37
As new crust is created, what is the process that melts crust and where does this occur?
Subduction- destructive plate boundary
38
What is now seen as the driving force for plate movement and at what plate boundary does this occur?
Slab pull- destructive
39
What happens in the plate tectonic theory, 'slab pull'?
Oceanic material (formed at mid-ocean ridge) becomes denser and thicker as it cools so slides into the mantle, pulling the plate down
40
What is the Wilson cycle?
Cycle of divergent + convergent plate boundaries
41
What is the elastic rebound theory?
Stresses in the earth create a locked fault but the frictional resistance is greater than the fault
The stresses eventually build up and are greater than the force of friction so are released as an earthquake.
42
What are the 3 types of waves in an earthquake?
Primary (P-waves)
Secondary (S-waves)
Love (L-waves)
43
What type of wave are primary and secondary waves?
Body waves
44
What type of waves are love waves?
Surface waves
45
What else are P+S waves called?
Pressure waves and shear waves
46
Rank the 3 types of waves from fastest to slowest:
Primary is the fastest, then secondary and love is the slowest and last to arrive
47
Do P waves and S waves travel through solids and liquids?
Both travel through solid
Only P waves travel through liquid
48
Rank the 3 types of waves from most to least damaging:
Most damaging is love as all energy is focused on the Earth’s surface, then secondary, then primary is the least damaging
49
How do P-waves shake the ground?
Backwards and forwards
50
How do S-waves shake the ground?
Sideways, at right angle to the direction of energy travel
51
How do L-waves shake the ground?
Side to side
52
What are the 2 physical primary impacts of earthquakes?
Ground shaking and crustal fracturing
53
What are the 2 secondary impacts of earthquakes?
Liquefaction and landslides- aftershocks can also occur
54
What happens during ground shaking?
Infrastructure collapses and injured nearby
55
What happens at crustal fracturing?
Energy from the earthquake causes the crust to crack and leave gaps
56
What happens at liquefaction?
Shaking causes the surface rocks to lose strength and become more liquid, so sink
57
Why are landslides (or avalanches) caused?
Shaking places stress on slopes
58
In what year did the Lima Prieta earthquake occur?
1989
59
What were the 2 physical impacts at the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake and explain?
Groundshaking- damage to infrastructure on soft/sandy soil
Liquefaction- 42 deaths on 2 level freeway
60
What are the 4 physical primary hazards of a volcano?
Tephrá
Lava flows
Gas eruptions
Pyroclastic flows
61
What are the 2 secondary hazards of a volcano?
Lahars
Jökulhlaups
62
What is tephrá?
When atmospheric material (eg rock ash) is blasted during a volcanic reaction
63
Describe lava flows
Move slowly (up to 15km/h) on the surface at 1170°C
64
What are gas eruptions?
Dissolved gases (eg CO2 H2O) are released during an eruption, travels far
65
What are pyroclastic flows?
A fast, destructive, hot, dense mix (rock ash gas) exploded at 700°C
66
What are lahars?
Violent fast rock/mud flows down wide volcanic slopes
67
What are jökulhlaups?
Glacial flood when the heat melts snow/ice and there are sudden releases of dangerous ice, rock and gravel
68
What's an example of a composite volcano and what physical hazards occur here?
Mt St Helens-
Tephra, lava flow, gas eruption, pyroclastic flow, lahar
69
What are 2 examples of a shield volcano and what physical hazards occur here?
Hawaii, Iceland
Tephra, lava flow, gas eruptions, jokulhaups
70
How are tsunamis formed in 5 steps?
1. Submarine earthquakes at a subduction zone move the ocean floor upwards
2. A vertical column of water is displaced causing an oscillatory wave from a build up of energy which propagates (moves outwards)
3. The wave travels and approaches the shallow coastline
4. Wave shoaling occurs due to friction so the amplitude of the wave increases
5. Wave at 20-30m high floods land
71
What is the early warning system called for tsunamis?
DART- deep ocean assessment and reporting of tsunami
72
How does the DART system work?
Seabed sensors and surface buoys monitor changes in sea level and pressure
72
Why can't you predict tsunamis, but what can be done instead?
You can't predict earthquakes, but you can forecast (probability of happening in time frame)
73
What is a natural hazard?
Naturally occurring event with potential to cause the loss of life/property
74
What is a natural disaster?
Disruption causing social, economic and environmental damage. The criteria for something to be considered a natural 'disaster' is 10+ deaths, 100+ affected and a loss of US$1 million
75
What does Degg's model show?
How a natural hazard alongside a vulnerable population causes disaster
76
What does it mean for a population to be considered vulnerable?
Susceptible to human/economic loss
77
What is resilience?
The ability to cope and then return back to normal following a disaster
78
What are some examples of resilience?
Emergency evacuation + relief in place
Hazard resistant designs
Social support
79
What is the hazard risk equation?
hazard x vulnerability
--------------------------------
capacity to cope
80
What does the PAR model stand for and what does it believe?
Pressure and release model- the socio-economic context is important
81
What is evidence that socio-economic context is important in developing a disaster?
14/15 of the earthquakes with the highest death toll were in developing/emerging countries
82
What is the progression of vulnerability in the PAR model?
Root causes → Dynamic pressures → Unsafe conditions
83
In the PAR model, what does root causes include?
Limited access to power, structures and resources
Ideologies- political + economic systems
84
In the PAR model, what does dynamic pressures include?
Lack of training, skills, investment
Macro-forces such as rapid population change, urbanisation, deforestation
85
In the PAR model, what do unsafe conditions include?
Physical environment, low income, special high-risk groups
Local economy, social relation and public action
86
What is a root cause, dynamic pressure, unsafe condition and natural hazard for the Haiti 2010 earthquake?
Root cause- lack of building regulation
Dynamic pressure-lack of education + training
Unsafe condition- 80% of the capital are in slums
Natural hazard- magnitude 7.0
87
In what type of country was the Kashmir, Pakistan earthquake, when was it, what was the magnitude and what was the plate boundary?
Developing
2005
7.6M
Collision plate boundary
88
In what type of country was the Sichuan, China earthquake, when was it, what was the magnitude and what was the plate boundary?
Emerging
2008
7.9M
Collision plate boundary
89
In what type of country was the New Zealand earthquake, when was it, what was the magnitude and what was the plate boundary?
Developed
2010/11
7.1 and 6.3
Destructive and transform plate boundary
90
In terms of vulnerability, what is a root cause, dynamic pressure and unsafe condition for the Kashmir, Pakistan earthquake?
Root cause- conflict over Kashmir (India/Pakistan) weakened response
Dynamic pressure- army lacked training and equipment
Unsafe condition- building regulations ignored
91
In terms of vulnerability, what is a root cause, dynamic pressure and unsafe condition for the Sichuan, China earthquake?
Root cause- 1 child policy so devastating to lose a child
Dynamic pressure- occurred at 2:28pm so many in school where 11000 died
Unsafe condition- poor building quality
92
In terms of vulnerability, what is a root cause, dynamic pressure and unsafe condition for the New Zealand earthquake?
Root cause- building codes largely followed
Dynamic pressure- in 2010, 44km away from Christchurch but in 2011 only 5km away from Christchurch CBD
Unsafe condition- Canturbury plains consisted of loose sediment so slap down effect occurred (sediment hit hard below creating more energy)
93
In the Kashmir, Pakistan earthquake, how was their capacity to cope?
A sports stadium was used to house people, but farmers lost livestock + crops
94
In the Sichuan, China earthquake, how was their capacity to cope?
Temporary camps and NGO aid, but airport and 5300km of roads closed
95
In the New Zealand earthquake, how was their capacity to cope?
Rescue teams and Natural Hazards Platform resilience programme created in 2009
96
How many died in the Kashmir, Pakistan earthquake?
Over 70,000
97
How many died in the Sichuan, China earthquake?
Almost 90,000
98
How many died in the New Zealand earthquake?
182
99
How many became homeless in the Kashmir, Pakistan earthquake?
2.5 million in Pakistan, many slept outside
100
How many became homeless in the Sichuan, China earthquake?
5 million
101
How many became homeless in the New Zealand earthquake?
10,000
102
How much did the Kashmir, Pakistan earthquake cost and what were 2 economical impacts?
US$5 billion- looting, loss of livestock + crops
103
How much did the Sichuan, China earthquake cost and what were 2 economical impacts?
US$86 billion- 32mil farm animals perished and there was a loss of factories, including hydro-electric power stations
104
How much did the New Zealand earthquake cost and what was an economical impact?
US$25 billion- interest rate fell to cover the cost which lowered the value of the NZ$
105
Give 2 environmental impacts of the Kashmir, Pakistan earthquake
Landslides (roads blocked)
Loss of biodiversity
106
Give 2 environmental impacts of the Sichuan, China earthquake
100,000 lived on weak rock- liquefaction
Lack of water + sanitation (also health)
107
Give an environmental impact of the New Zealand earthquake
80% of water/sewage systems destroyed
108
How is the:
Magnitude of an earthquake measured?
Intensity of an earthquake measured?
Magnitude of a volcanic eruption measured?
Moment magnitude scale
Modified Mercalli Intensity scale
Volcanic explosivity index
109
How does the MMS collect information?
Seismic waves, rock movement, fault surface broken, resistance of rocks affected
110
What does the MMIS measure?
Impact on people, structures and the environment
111
What is the VEI based on?
Volume of tephra + ash, pyroclastic flows, height of material ejected, duration, observation
112
How is the MMS measured? What is the highest earthquake ever recorded on this scale?
Logarithmic scale 1-10, highest is Chile 1960 at 9.5
113
How is the MMIS measured?
From I (hardly noticed) to XII (catastrophic)
114
How is the VEI measured?
Logarithmic scale from 0 (non explosive) to 8 (extremely large)
115
What are the 6 categories measured for hazard profiles?
Magnitude
Speed of onset
Areal extent
Duration
Frequency
Spacial predictability
116
What are the 2 volcano case studies?
Iceland- Eyjafjallajökull
DRC- Nyiragongo
117
When was the Nyiragongo volcanic eruption, what did it score in the VEI and what was the speed of the lava?
2002, 2VEI, 60km/h
118
When was the Eyjafjallajökull earthquake, what did it score in the VEI and how far did it eject upwards?
2010, 2-4VEI, 10km
119
How many died, and how many were evacuated in the Nyiragongo earthquake?
147 died and 400,000 evacuated
120
How many died, and how many were evacuated in the Eyafjallajökull earthquake?
0 died and 700 evacuated (respiratory issues)
121
What were 2 social impacts of the Nyiragongo earthquake?
Looting, caused further damage
Drinking water contaminated (acid rain)
122
Due to flights being cancelled, how many Brittons were stuck abroad (due to Eyafjallajökull) and why so many?
400,000 due to it being the end of the Easter holiday
123
Due to Eyafjallajökull, how many flights were cancelled and what industry was affected?
95000, the fishing industry
124
Due to Eyjafjallajökull, how much did Europe lose in GDP and why?
Lost US$2.6 billion due to supply chains disrupted
125
How much did the Nyirogongo earthquake cause in damage?
US$35 million
126
How was unemployment affected by the Nyirogongo earthquake and why?
Increased from 80% to 95%- businesses were destroyed
127
When was the Indian ocean boxing day tsunami, how big was the earthquake that caused it and how tall was the tsunami?
2004
9.0M
24m high
128
When was the Japanease tsunami, how big was the earthquake that caused it and how tall was the tsunami?
2011
9.0M
39m high
129
Describe what happens at the plate boundary at the Indian Ocean tsunami
Indo-Australian plate subducted below the Eurasian
130
Describe what happens at the plate boundary at the Japanese tsunami
Pacific plate subducted below Okhotsk plate
131
In the Indian ocean tsunami, how many were killed and how many properties were destroyed?
280,000 killed and 179,000 properties destroyed
132
In the Japanese tsunami, how many were killed and how many properties were destroyed?
Just under 16,000 killed and 128,000 properties destroyed
133
What were 2 social impacts of the Indian ocean tsunami?
Fear of epidemic/disease amongst refugee camps
Many orphaned, traumatised children
134
What were 2 social impacts of the Japanese tsunami?
Radioactive elements detected in local water (health)
200,000 stranded at stations in Tokyo
135
How much did the Indian ocean boxing day tsunami cost?
Over US$10 billion
136
How much did the Japanese tsunami cost and how much did Japan's GDP shrink by?
US$300 billion, GDP shrank by 3.7%
137
What were 2 economic impacts of the Indian ocean tsunami?
10% of fishermen lost boats/nets needed for income
Roads + rail links blocked
138
What were 2 economic impacts of the Japanese tsunami?
Agriculture devastated, Tohoku region accounted for 3-4% of Japanese rice production
Closure/destruction of ports so shipping disrupted
139
What is governance?
Rules and controls that aim to support it's society- can be formal or informal
140
Give 2 examples of local governance
Local authority
Local community leaders
141
Give 3 examples of national governance
Military
Government
Natural hazard management organisation
142
Give 2 examples of international governance
INGOs
Religious groups
143
How is local governance seen in a modern view?
Just as important alongside general goverment
144
What 4 categories can governance control?
Globalisation
Organisations
Neo-liberal
IT
145
Give a pro and a con of governance being involved in globalisation
Easy quick response for natural hazards
Can have a knock-on-effect to other countries
146
Give a pro and a con of governance being involved in organisations
Provides a safety net
Could lead to over-reliance
147
Give a pro and a con of governance having neo-liberal (market-orientated) ideologies?
Efficient
Profit driven means that other costs are cut
148
Give a pro and a con of governance having IT
Better response time
False information can be shared and create fear
149
What are the 3 geographical factors affecting vulnerability and resilience?
Population density
Isolation/accessibility
Degree of urbanisation
150
How does a high population density affect vulnerability and resilience?
Harder to evacuate so hit harder
151
How does isolation and inaccessibility affect vulnerability and resilience?
Slows the rescue/relief efforts
152
How does a higher degree of urbanisation affect vulnerability and resilience?
Higher deaths as there's a higher concentration at risk
153
What are the 3 inequality factors affecting vulnerability and resilience?
Income
Housing
Healthcare/education
154
What happens if there is a limited/nonexistant personal/governmental safety net?
Few resources
155
What is the model called that suggests that disaster is caused by a linked cascade of events?
Reason's Swiss Cheese model
156
When was the Nepal earthquake, what was it's magnitude and how many died?
2015
7.8M
9000 died
157
In the Nepal earthquake, how many houses were damaged?
Over half a million
158
When was the Bam, Iran earthquake, what was it's magnitude and how many died?
2003
6.6M
26,000 died
159
Describe the physical geography of the Nepal 2015 earthquake
High relief, prone to landslides and floods
160
Describe the physical geography of the Bam, Iran 2003 earthquake
Shallow focus and cold winter (hypothermia)
161
Describe the physical geography of the New Zealand 2010/11 earthquake
Shallow focus
162
Describe 2 geographical risks, increasing vulnerability for the Nepal earthquake?
High population density at 13,000/km²
Fast urbanising, growing at 4%/year
163
Describe a geographical risk, increasing vulnerability for the Bam, Iran earthquake?
Ancient city with some buildings 2400 years old with heavy roofs so prone to shaking
164
Describe a geographical risk, increasing vulnerability for the New Zealand earthquake?
The aftershock was closer to the CBD
165
What was a development issue relating to the Nepal earthquake?
Earthquake science was dated
166
What was a development issue relating to the Bam, Iran earthquake?
Buildings (including emergency services) made of wood and pre-weakened via termite activity
167
What was a development issue relating to the New Zealand earthquake?
Buildings were pre-weakened by the first earthquake
168
What was a governance issue relating to the Nepal earthquake?
Poor/excluded groups were vulnerable and many build their own houses with an incorrect building code
169
What was a governance issue relating to the Bam, Iran earthquake?
Lack of specialised medical training (20% of healthcare professionals died) and the building codes weren't enforced
170
How was good governance shown in the New Zealand earthquake?
Rebuild cost largely insured and the building codes were enforced
171
Since 1960, describe the trend in natural geophysical disasters and give a reason
Fairly steady with fluctuations, overall increase but descreasing from 2015
-media reporting
172
Since 1960, what is the trend in the number of deaths from geophysical disasters occurring? Give 3 reasons why
Decreasing
-mobile communication
-preparation
-response management
173
Since 1960, what is the trend in the number of deaths occurring due to earthquakes? Give statistics
Variable due to mega events
Eg: 2012-14 less than 1000 deaths
but
2004-10 over 200,000 deaths
174
Since 1960, what is the trend in the number of deaths occurring due to volcanic eruptions? Give statistics
Decreased significantly
Only been 7 eruptions since 1980 which have killed over 100 people
175
Since 1960, what is the trend in the number of people affected by geophysical disasters? Give 2 reasons why
Increasing with spikes
-increased population
-more living in risky areas
176
Since 1960, what is the trend in the number of people affected by earthquakes?
Fluctuating with an increase from the 70s, many mega events, decrease from 2015
177
Since 1960, what is the trend in the number of people affected by volcanic eruptions?
Increased (due to evacuation procedures)
Eg: 2010 Mt Merapi Indonesia where over 300,000 were affected but only 300 died
178
Since 1960, what is the trend in the economic damage caused by geophysical disasters? Give a reason why
Increasing with spikes
-more becoming affluent in emerging and developed countries so they have more to lose
179
Since 1960, what is the trend in the economic damage caused by earthquakes?
Fluctuations, increasing at mega events and developing + emerging
180
Since 1960, what is the trend in the economic damage caused by volcanic eruptions?
Fluctuating, very small increase since 1970s
181
Give the 4 reasons why data regarding tectonic disasters may not be reliable and accurate
1. immediate focus on aid + rescue (not data collection)
2. collection methods vary (not single organisation)
3. differences in defining + categorising
4. underreporting in remote areas
182
Define a tectonic mega disaster?
Large scale disaster in terms of aerial/spacial scale or socioeconomic impact
183
What are the 3 case studies used to show global significance in tectonic mega disasters?
2004 Asian tsunami
2010 Ejafjallajokull
2011 Japanese tsunami
184
How many people were affected in the Asian Tsunami and over how many countries?
5 million over 14 countries
185
How many tourists died in the Asian tsunami?
9000
186
Because of the Asian tsunami, how much did Thailand lose per month, and consequently how many people lost their jobs?
US$25 million / month
120,000 lost their jobs
187
Because of the Eyjafjallajokull eruption, how many flights were cancelled, and how many people were affected?
95,000 flights affecting 10 million people
188
Because of the Eyjafjallajokull eruption, how much revenue did airlines lose?
US$ 7 billion
189
What % of Kenya's economy exports flowers and vegetables to Europe, and how much did they lose a day in revenue?
20%
Lost US$1.5 million /day
190
Where was the nuclear power plant called in Japan, and how many power stations closed because of the Japanese earthquake and tsunami?
Fukushima, all 44 power stations closed
191
What % of Japan's electricity was nuclear:
Before 2011-
By 2013-
Before 2011- 27%
By 2013- 1%
192
Name 2 consequential effects that the closing of Japan's nuclear plant (after the 2011 disaster) had.
Had to import fossil fuels which increased CO2 emissions
Germany permanently shut down all of their power plants
193
What is a multiple hazard zone (MHZ)?
Where a number of physical hazards combine to increase the risk
194
When does a multiple hazard zone become a disaster hotspot?
When it interacts with vulnerability
195
What is the case study for a MHZ?
The Philippines
196
Where is the Philippines located?
South east Asia
On the Pacific Ring of Fire
Archipelago (island chain)
197
Describe the geography of the Philipines
Developing/lowly emerging country
Mountainous
Low lying coastal land
198
Referring to physical geography, what are 5 hazards that the Philipines face and why?
Earthquakes + volcanoes -> convergent plate boundary
Tsunamis -> faces pacific
Typhoons (tropical storms) -> tropical monsoon climate
Landslides -> steep topography
199
Describe the vulnerability and capacity to cope in reference to the Philipines
High population density
Slums
25% in poverty
Deforestation
Refugee camps- however these have disease outbreaks
200
Describe the progression of the 2006 Filipino earthquake
1. First, there was an earthquake that killed just 15 people
2. The earthquake triggered a 3m high tsunami
3. The tsunami triggered a landslide which breached volcano wall
4. Fell into a lake and caused a flood, washing away houses
201
Why might not all MHZs be a disaster hotspot- use an example.
In California- widespread insurance, strict building code, FEMA to provide info
202
What is hazard prediction?
Knowing when and where a natural hazard will strike on a spacial and temporal scale
203
What is hazard forecasting?
The probability of a hazard occurring in a time frame
204
Can you predict/forecast earthquakes?
No, despite decades of research.
You can create a risk forecast where high risk areas are identified
205
Can you predict/forecast volcanoes?
You can predict them by measuring the change as magma chambers fill
You can forecast as gas spectrometers analyse gas emissions which points to probability of eruption
206
Can you predict/forecast tsunamis?
You can't, but can give short notice
Seismometers locate earthquakes and then ocean monitors detect the tsunami
207
How do you categorise the hazard management cycle?
By time
208
What are the 4 stages of the hazard management cycle?
Response
Recovery
Mitigation
Preparation
209
What does 'response' mean in relation to the hazard management cycle?
Coping with the disaster when it happens
210
What does 'recovery' mean in relation to the hazard management cycle?
Short-term and long-term recovery strategies, then starts to overlap with mitigation
211
What does 'mitigation' mean in relation to the hazard management cycle?
Preventing/minimising the effect of the hazard (reducing vulnerability)
212
What does 'prepardness' mean in relation to the hazard management cycle?
Preparing to deal with the hazard, community resilience
213
What is the hazard response curve called, and when was it created?
Park's model- 1991
214
What are the 5 different stages in Park's model?
Stage 1: Modifying the cause and event
Stage 2: Hazardous event
Stage 3: Search, rescue and care
Stage 4: Relief and rehabilitation
Stage 5: Recovery
215
Describe stage 1 of Park's Model in New Zealand 2011 earthquake
Enforced building codes, however buildings weakened from previous 2010 earthquake
216
Describe stage 2 of Park's Model in New Zealand 2011 earthquake
6.3 magnitude
182 died
Nature of earthquakes- short so no time for active management
217
Describe stage 3 of Park's Model in New Zealand 2011 earthquake
Military used for search and rescue
Curfew to prevent crime
Google person finder + crisis mapping
218
Describe stage 4 of Park's Model in New Zealand 2011 earthquake
Rebuilding of the CBD and major infrastructure
Organised house share scheme
219
Describe stage 5 of Park's Model in New Zealand 2011 earthquake
2013 Christchurch Recovery plan which cost $20 billion for education, health, jobs and culture
CBD was regenerated with focus on sustainability (improvement) and being earthquake safe
Still hard to attract businesses back
Psychological affect on people
220
Describe stage 1 of Park's Model in Haiti 2010 earthquake
Slums had heavy roofs, and on steep land
Formal buildings built of brittle steel
221
Describe stage 2 of Park's Model in Haiti 2010 earthquake
7.0 magnitude
220,000 died
Nature of earthquake- short so no time for active management
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Describe stage 3 of Park's Model in Haiti 2010 earthquake
Manual lifting of rubble
Many service workers injured/killed
Connectivity lost
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Describe stage 4 of Park's Model in Haiti 2010 earthquake
In 2 weeks, only 25% of homeless had tents
Street markets opened, but with decreased supply
UN raised money for dry food packs
Google earth used on hand held GPS (technological leapfrogging)
224
Describe stage 5 of Park's Model in Haiti 2010 earthquake
$30 million donation from World Bank- low tech earthquake proofing
1 year later, only 5% rubble cleared, camps becoming permanent but schools open
Dirty water + aid workers contributed to cholera outbreak (perhaps dip in curve)
225
Do countries of all development levels fit Park's model?
Yes, vaguely
Developed countries may have a less dramatic drop at stage 3, and a steeper recovery
Developing countries may fluctuate in their recovery
226
What is hazard mitigation?
Modifying an event to reduce it's impact
227
What are the 4 types of hazard mitigation?
Land use zoning
Diverting lava flows
GIS mapping
Hazard resistant design and engineering defenses
228
What is land use zoning?
When local government planners regulate how land is used. This protects people and property at high risk areas. Facilities may be banned in certain areas, eg: nuclear power
229
Give an example of the use of land-use zoning
In New Zealand, there are different risk zones surrounding Mt Taranaki
230
What is diverting lava flows?
Barriers or channels which divert lava away from communities and into a safer area
231
Has diverting lava flows been successful?
Successful in 1983 for Mt Etna in Italy
Generally unsuccessful as the flow is hard to predict, a suitable terrain is needed and the diversion may go to other communities
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When is GIS mapping used?
All stages of the HMC, for example identifying evacuation routes and rescue + recovery
233
How did GIS mapping help aid agencies in the Nepal 2015 earthquake? (3 ways)
Seeing the population of major towns
Areas affected
Location of airports
234
What does hazard-resistant design and engineering defenses do?
Prevents the collapse of buildings- this is what causes the most deaths and damage
235
Give 3 examples of hazard-resistant design / engineering defences
Rubber shock absorbers
Slanted roofs to prevent heavy ash build up
Sea walls
236
Describe how hazard-resistant design/engineering defenses can be low tech
Eg: Pakistan
Bales of straw held together by strong plastic netting means that the walls crack, but don't collapse
237
What is hazard adaptation?
Modifying vulnerability during/after the event
238
What are the 5 hazard adaptation strategies?
High-tech monitoring
Crisis mapping
Computer Modelling
Public education
Community preparedness and adaptation
239
What does hi-tech monitoring hope to do, and give the 4 methods of it
Predict with higher accuracy
-GIS (hazard maps)
-Early warning systems (issues alerts)
-Satellite (transmits data from EWS)
-Mobiles (issues warning, eg: Japanese government sent text message 2011)
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What is crisis mapping?
A live, interactive map that maps areas struck by disaster
241
How was crisis mapping used in the Nepal 2015 earthquake?
Volunteers rode on bicycles to remote villages to build a picture of vulnerability. This will help in the future too.
242
What does computer modelling do and how?
Predict the impact of hazard events on communities. It does this by feeding information into a computer system which models the effect of the disaster. Different scenarios can be compared (eg: if a sea wall is built or not).
243
What does public education do in terms of hazard adaption?
Brings awareness to stop hazards becoming disasters. This protects people before, during and after the event.
244
Give 3 examples of public education
-Regularly practicing emergency procedures (Japanese children practice earthquake drills 4 times per year)
-Creating emergency preparedness kits
-Educational materials (eg: how to build to withstand earthquakes)
245
Give 3 formalised examples of community preparedness
List of vulnerable people (eg: elderly)
Practice evacuation drills
Offer first aid courses
246
Give an example of how community preparedness and adaptation was used in the 2005 Indian Ocean tsunami
The Thailand Moken tribe (fishermen) notices unusual movements in bay so ordered villagers to run to the hilltop. The tsunami struck and only 1/200 villagers were killed.
247
Who are the 4 key players in managing the loss of an earthquake?
1. Aid doners
2. NGOs
3. Insurance
4. Communities affected
248
What does AID include?
Cash, services and equipment to help recover and rebuild- all stages of the hazard management cycle
249
What are the 3 types of AID and give an example for each
Emergency aid: food
Short-term aid: restoring water
Longer term aid: infrastructure, management programmes
250
What are 3 things that NGOs do, especially if the government struggles to respond?
Provide funds
Search and rescue
Develop reconstruction plans
251
Why is insurance important?
Economic cost is high and rising (can link to diaster trends since 1960)
252
In 2011, how much was the worldwide loss just from earthquakes?
US$54 billion
253
What is the issue with insurance as a player in the management of loss?
Few in developing countries have it as their current economic needs take priority
254
Why are communities crucial in immediate search and rescue?
Clear debris and can travel to remote areas
255
How are communities involved in the long term?
By building and improving resilience
