Term Test 1 Flashcards
(131 cards)
1
Q
What is Psychology?
A
Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behaviour.
2
Q
What other disciplines does psychology share its roots in?
A
Philosophy and Physiology.
3
Q
What are philosophers interested in, when it comes to psychology?
A
They are interested in the mind, asking questions like “are the mind and body one” or “are we born with knowledge or do we acquire it as we grow up?”
4
Q
What are physiologists concerned with?
A
Physiologists are often concerned with thought, sensation and perception etc, and the body and brain.
5
Q
How do physiologists and philosophers differ?
A
Philosophy used psychological subjects and no scientific of empirical research methods, whereas physiologists use a scientific approach.
6
Q
Who was Wilhelm Wundt?
A
Wundt was known as the father of psychology.
7
Q
What contributions did Wundt bring to psychology?
A
- He defined psychology as a separate discipline from philosophy or physiology.
- He created the first psychology lab in the world
8
Q
How did Wundt define psychology?
A
He defined it as the study of conscious experience.
9
Q
Wundt was responsible for developing _________.
A
Structuralism
10
Q
Who was G. Stanley Hall?
A
He was responsible for bringing psychology to America. He made the first psychology lab and journal in America, and he helped with the formation of APA.
11
Q
Who was Rene Descartes?
A
He was a philosopher who believed in dualism.
12
Q
What is dualism?
A
The theory that the mind and body are two separate entities, and that the mind/soul is immaterial (meaning it cannot be measured or observed). The body is material, including memory, and perception, which can be measured.
13
Q
What is philosophical materialism?
A
The view that all mental phenomena is reducible to physical phenomena. Everything can be explained by the material/physical world.
14
Q
Religions tend to side with_____?
A
Dualism
15
Q
What is philosophical realism?
A
Realists believe that perceptions of the physical world are produced entirely by information from the sensory organs. When you look at something, the brain is using ONLY that information to produce your perception of the book in front of you. Essentially, the brain is like a camera.
16
Q
What is philosophical idealism?
A
Idealists believe that perceptions of the physical world are made from the brains interpretation from sensory organs. According to idealists, light is bouncing off the page, hitting your eye, and your brain is using that information, PLUS all the information it has about the world to produce perception. Essentially, the brain is painting a picture of what it believes is out there.
17
Q
Modern psychology sides with_____?
A
Idealists.
18
Q
What is philosophical empiricism?
A
The view that all knowledge is ONLY acquired through experience.
19
Q
What is philosophical nativism?
A
The view that some knowledge is innate rather than acquired. It argues that human beings must be born with some basic knowledge of the world.
20
Q
Modern psychology tends to side with_____?
A
Nativists.
21
Q
Who was Helmholtz?
A
A physiologist, who advocated a purely empirical approach,
22
Q
What research did Helmholtz do?
A
He measured the reaction time of nerve impulses, to determine how long it takes to transmit a signal.
23
Q
What is structuralism?
A
An approach to psychology that attempted to isolate and analyze the mind in its basic elements. Ex: “What elements make up consciousness?
24
Q
Structuralists take inspiration from_______?
A
Chemistry
25
How did structuralists conduct research?
Introspection.
26
What is introspection?
The analysis of subjective experience by trained observers. Essentially, you ask people to describe things in great detail without the use of outside knowledge.
27
What were the main flaws with introspection?
Stimulus error - you could NOT apply outside knowledge
| Not objectively verifiable - Since this is a subjective research method, you cannot verify an individuals senses.
28
What did William James think of structuralism?
James believed that psychologists should worry less about what mental life was like, and more about what it was for.
29
What did William James propose?
He believed in functionalism. An approach to psychology that emphasized the adaptive significance of mental processes. What are the purposes of these mental behaviours and why do they exist.
30
William James employed a ________?
stream of consciousness method.
31
What types of research methods did functionalists employ?
Introspection, recording and measurement, objective studies, anatomy and physiology.
32
What is a similarity between functionalists and structuralists?
They both look solely at consciousness. Structuralists focus on the structure of the mind, while functionalists put forth the understanding and purpose of the mind,
33
What did Freud contribute to psychology?
1. He put forth the idea of the unconscious - things we are unaware of can influence our behaviour.
2. He founded the psychoanalytic school
3. Introduced talk therapy as a method for patients to speak to a professional to solve a problem
34
What is behaviourism?
Approach to psychology that restricts scientific inquiry to observable behaviour.
35
What did Watson believe?
He was a behaviourist that believed we should limit our studying to the things people do, rather than the things they claim to think and feel. Behaviourists neither looked at consciousness or unconsciousness, but rather they looked from the outside.
36
What is methodological behaviourism?
Watson was responsible for founding this type of behaviourism. He believed that psychology should be a science. In order for it to be scientific, observations must be verifiable through objective observation.
He believed in stimulus-response pairs.
37
What is radical behaviourism and who founded it?
Radical behaviourism was founded by B.F. Skinner. Skinner believed that internal events do exist, but there is no need to study them. He thought you could predict behaviour externally, completely dismissing internal events.
1. He believed in the principal of reinforcement: we repeat behaviours that lead to positive outcomes, and do not repeat behaviours that lead to negative or neutral outcomes.
2. He also thought that free will was an illusion, since internal thoughts do not influence us.
38
What did humanists believe?
Humanists believe that behaviourism and psychoanalysis is dehumanizing. They believe psychoanalysis is ruled by primitive, sexual urges, and behaviourism denies the existence of free will, and the importance of thoughts and beliefs.
39
What are the three main focuses of humanists?
1. Free will (control over behaviour)
2. Rational (humans behave in rational ways)
3. Personal growth and development (continue to make strides in their personal lives)
40
Sometimes people think that humanists are too_____?
happy go lucky
41
Contributions of humanists include?
1. Treatments for physiological problems and disorders
| 2. Self-determination and personal growth
42
What do cognitive psychologists believe?
They believe that we must study mental events to understand behaviour.
43
What is cognition?
Mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge.
44
How does cognitive psychology relate to physiology?
Relates in the sense that we look for the interrelations between the mind, body and behaviour.
Types of things we look for:
1) what different parts of the brain do
2) stimulating parts of the brain for emotional response
3) processing visual signals
45
Who was Hebb?
A famous psychologist who came up with the idea of cell assemblies. Neural networks consistently fire together.
46
What is cognitive neuroscience?
The study of the relationship between the brain and the mind (especially in humans).
47
What is behavioural neuroscience?
The study of the relationship between brain and behaviour (especially in non-human animals).
48
What does cultural psychology focus on?
Studies how culture influences mental life.
49
What does evolutionary psychology focus on?
Studies the ways in which the human mind have been shaped by natural selection.
50
What does developmental psychology focus on?
Studies the ways in which psychological phenomenon change over lifespans (i.e., how we see the world.)
51
What does social psychology focus on?
The study of causes and consequences of sociality.
| 1.) studying how people see beliefs, stereotypes, identities, intentions etc.
52
What is the scientific method?
A procedure that uses empirical research and evidence to establish facts.
53
What is empirical evidence?
Empirical evidence can be defined as information received by the means of the senses, particularly by observation, and documentation of patterns and behaviour through experimentation.
54
What is a theory?
Theories can be denoted as hypothetical explanations of natural phenomena.
55
What is a hypothesis?
A hypothesis is a specific falsifiable prediction made by a theory. Also can be denoted as a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
56
What is falsifiability?
Falsifiability is not about whether certain ideas are false, rather it is about whether data can reveal if they are false.
57
Can a hypothesis be proven right?
Observations that are consistent with a hypothesis can increase our confidence that the hypothesis is correct, but they can never make us absolutely sure if it is right.
58
What are the steps within the scientific method?
1. Develop a theory
2. Derive a falsifiable hypothesis
3. Gather empirical evidence
4. Evaluate your research
59
Why is empirical research hard sometimes?
Empirical research is difficult because humans are highly complex, variable and reactive. No one person has the same feelings, thoughts and beliefs.
60
What does complexity, variability, and reactivity refer to?
variability - people react differently in the same situations (eg. you scream in a horror movie, I cry)
complexity - people are complex and there are not always easy answers to questions (eg. there are a lot of different potential reasons behind depression)
reactivity - people react differently when they know they are being observed (eg. if you litter normally, you probably won't litter if you're being watched)
61
What does measurement refer to?
How we define what we wish to measure, and then how we choose to detect it.
62
What is an operational definition?
An operational definition is a description of how a concept will be measured. Turning a concept into a quantity. Ex: Happiness can be measured by facial expression, how many times they smile in an hour, brain activity, or even a survey.
63
What do we use for "detection?"
Now that we have defined what we want to measure, we need a way to detect it. A detector is an instrument, device, or rater which can detect the property that we have defined.
64
What determines a good operational definition?
Construct validity defines how well a test or experiment measures up to its claims. It refers to whether the operational definition of a variable actually reflect the true theoretical meaning of a concept.
65
What is internal validity?
Internal validity is the extent to which you can be confident that a cause-and-effect relationship established in a study cannot be explained by other factors.
66
What is external validity?
External validity is the validity of applying the conclusions of a scientific study outside the context of that study. In other words, it is the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized.
67
What makes a good detector?
Power and reliability.
68
What does power refer to?
Statistical power is the likelihood that a test will be able to to detect an effect (during a research study) when one truly exists.
69
What does reliability refer to?
In statistical terms, reliability refers to the reproducibility and consistency of a measure.
70
Reliability vs. validity?
Reliability refers to the consistency of the measurements, whereas validity refers to the accuracy.
71
Types of ways to measure reliability?
```
Inter-rater reliability score, test-retest (take the test multiple times), and internal consistency.
Internal consistency (i.e. split test reliability, split 50% of items and compare with the other 50% to see if there is consistency)
```
72
What can we use test re-test on?
We can use retest reliability on something that is consistent over time like IQ, but not happiness because that fluctuates
73
If something is reliable, it does not guarantee_____?
validity.
74
What are demand characteristics?
Demand characteristics are those aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think someone else wants or expects. For example, if a researcher asked, “Do you think it is wrong to cheat on exams?” the participant would feel obligated to say yes because that is the answer they think the researcher is expecting back.
75
How do we avoid demand characteristics?
Naturalistic observation, privacy and control, and unawareness.
76
What does naturalistic observation refer to?
Naturalistic Observation: a technique used to gather scientific information by unobtrusively observing people in their natural environments.
Unfortunately naturalistic observation is not always practical. First, some events do not just occur naturally. Secondly, some events can only be observed through direct interaction such as by conducting an interview or hooking someone up to a heart rate monitor.
77
What does privacy and control refer to?
People are less likely to be influenced by demand characteristics when they can’t be identified as the authors of their actions. Psychologists often take advantage of this by allowing participants to respond privately (i.e., through a questionnaire) or anonymously (not collecting personal information).
78
What does unawareness refer to?
Make people unaware of the true purpose of the observation, then they do not feel obliged to act a certain way. This is why psychologists will mislead people by telling them they are studying one thing, when they are really studying another, or by giving people pointless tasks/asking pointless questions simply so that people can’t easily guess the study’s true purpose.
79
What is observer bias?
The tendency for observers’ expectations to influence both what they believe they observed, and what they actually observed.
80
How do we avoid observer bias?
Using a double-blind experiment.
81
Sample (n) vs. population (N)
A partial collection of people or animals or things drawn from a population.
82
How do we graphically represent data?
Frequency distribution: graphic representation showing the number of times in which the measurement of a property takes on each of its possible values.
Normal distribution(bell curve): mathematically defined distribution in which the frequency of measurements is highest in the middle and decreases symmetrically in both directions.
83
What are descriptive stats?
Brief summary statements that capture the essential information.
84
What are the two common kinds of descriptive stats?
Central tendency and the variability.
85
What does the central tendency tell us?
The mode (the value of the most frequently observed measurement), the mean (the average value of all the measurements) and the median (the value that is in the middle, 50th percentile).
86
Why do we usually use all three values?
If we have a skewed graph, the measure of central tendency changes.
87
What does variability measure?
Variability tells us how much the measurements differ from each other, or roughly how wide the distribution is.
Variability can be measured by the range and standard deviation.
88
What does the range refer to?
Range: largest value minus the smallest
89
What does the SD refer to?
Standard deviation: how each of the measurements in a frequency distribution differ from the mean. Essentially, how far, on average the various measurements are from the centre of the distribution.
90
Central tendency and variability are ______ of each other.
Independent.
91
Correlation vs. Causation
Correlation - whether two properties are related
| Causation - whether one of these properties causes the other
92
What is the correlation coefficient?
Is a mathematical measure of both direction and strength of a correlation.
93
What are the values of "r" and their meaning?
If r=1, the variables have a perfect, positive correlation
If r=-1, the variables has a perfect, negative correlation
r=0, the variables have no correlation
r>0<1, means there is a correlation but it is not perfect
94
What is the third-variable problem?
Refers to the fact that the natural correlation between two variables cannot be taken as evidence of a casual relationship between them because a third variable may causing them both.
95
How do we minimize this issue?
Random assignment, or experimentation.
96
What is random assignment?
A procedure that assigns participants to a condition by chance. This makes sure that the variable we are looking to investigate is the only one that was manipulated.
97
How do we know if random assignment has failed?
If p>0.05.
98
What is a case method?
Studying a single individual or small group of people in extreme depth.
99
What does random sampling refer to?
Allowing equal chance of all the population to be included in the sample. This random sample allows us to say it is representative of the entire population, and can be generalized.
100
What does replication refer to?
A replication is an experiment that uses the same procedures as a previous experiment but with a new sample from the same population
101
Nuremberg Code and the Declaration of Helsinki.......
spelled out rules for the ethical treatment of people who participate in experiments.
102
Any studies involving humans or tissue must go through the______?
TCPS (tri-council policy statement).
103
What agencies are in the TCPS?
the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR), the National Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC), and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC).
104
What are the three main pillars of the TCPS?
1. Respect for persons
2. Concern for welfare
3. Justice
105
What does respect for persons refer to?
Researchers should show respect for persons, and their right to make informed decisions for and about themselves without influence.
106
What does concern for welfare refer to?
This means that it should attempt to maximize benefits and reduce risks to the participant. Potential welfare risks include physical harm (sleep deprivation, administration of alcohol or drugs, unlabeled food products, un-sanitized equipment), stress/distress, or losing privacy and confidentiality.
Concern for welfare in groups - stigmatization and discrimination. This is secondary to welfare for individuals.
107
What does justice refer to?
Third, research should be just, which means that it should distribute benefits and risks equally to all participants without prejudice. In addition there also needs to be fair and equitable treatment. No imbalance of power.
108
What does consent refer to?
Consent is “informed” when you are able to fully understand the consequences of being in a study and make a decision about your participation
109
What does assent refer to?
Assent is the agreement of someone not able to give legal consent to participate in the activity, like potentially someone who is an elder with dementia etc.
110
Studies can only be performed after they have been reviewed by _______?
Research and ethics board.
111
Who is on a research and ethics board?
Usually composed of experienced researchers, university staff, and laypeople from the community like business leaders or members of the clergy.
112
What are the important rules for conduct of psychological research?
CCCDDHRB
Informed consent: participants need to provide a verbal agreement, and they are aware of all the potential or harmful risks. Participants are free to withdraw from the study at any time.
Freedom of coercion: Psychologists cannot coerce participation. Coercion does not only mean physical or psychological coercion, but also monetary coercion.
Protection from harm: Pick the safest method
Risk-benefit analysis: Participants cannot be subjected to large risks only small risks that they would ordinarily face in everyday life. The psychologist must demonstrate that the small risks are outweighed by the social benefits of knowledge gained from the study.
Deception: Researchers cannot deceive participants about any aspect of a study that could cause them physical or psychological harm. Deception may only be used when it is justified by the study’s scientific, educational or applied value.
Debriefing: if a participant was deceived in any way, the psychologist must provide a debriefing, which is a verbal description of the true nature and purpose of the study.
Confidentiality: keep private and personal information obtained confidential
113
Who is responsible for animal ethics?
CCAC - The Canadian Council for Animal Care
114
What 3 R's must be followed for animal research?
Replacement (researchers have to prove there is no alternative to using animals for research)
Reduction (use the least amount of animals possible to achieve research)
Refinement (procedures must be modified to minimize discomfort, infection, illness, and pain and maintain animal welfare)
115
What is an experimental group?
Receives the treatment.
116
What is a control group?
Does not receive treatment.
117
What is non-experimental research?
Research that does not involve manipulating any variables.
| In this type of research, we describe behaviour, look for relationships and make predictions.
118
Why do we use non-experimental research?
Used when we cannot use experimental techniques. This could be because it is not possible to experiment or its unethical.
119
What can non-experimental research not do?
Cannot determine cause and effect
120
Examples of non experimental research include____?
Naturalistic observation, case studies, and surveys.
121
What is placebo?
When you experience something based on expectation, but not by the actual experience.
122
What are some issues with self-reporting?
1. Demand characteristics
2. Misunderstood questions (vague, two possible answers etc.)
3. Response set (we watch for patterns like, clicking A,A,A,A)
123
What are heuristics?
Mental shortcuts that help us simplify reality. For example, if you need to go to the grocery store, you do not analyze every way to get there, you automatically go the simplest way.
124
What is a representativeness heuristic?
“Like goes with like.” Judging the probability of an event by how similar is to some prototype. Ex: a photo of a man ready for work, and a man in a robe yawning. Which guy will be late? Our brain automatically assumes it would be the one in the robe.
125
What is an availability heuristic?
“Off the top of my head.” We estimate the likelihood of something based on how quickly it comes to mind. Ex: Driving or planes, which is more unsafe? People assume flying because of plane crashes, when in reality it is actually cars.
126
What does inferential statistics refer to?
Make an inference from our sample to the general population
127
What is a frequency table?
Shows the frequencies of values
128
What is a histogram?
Shows the values in a chart.
129
What is the goal of scientific research?
1. measurement and description
2. understanding and prediction
3. application
130
How can a graph be skewed?
Right skewed (positively skewed), left skewed (negatively skewed) change the mean (maybe median?)
131
How can lying occur with statistics?
1. Use of misleading axes
2. Using the wrong measure of central tendency (i.e. like the mean, and the mean is sensitive to outliers so it does not give an accurate representation)
3. Sampling bias: we need to be critical of how the sample was calculated
4. Misleading comparisons
5. Confusing correlation with causation
