Term Test 2 Flashcards
(167 cards)
1
Q
What are the three keys of memory?
A
Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval.
2
Q
What does encoding refer to?
A
The process of transforming what we perceive, think, or feel into an enduring memory.
3
Q
What does storage refer to?
A
The process of maintaining information in memory over time.
4
Q
What does retrieval refer to?
A
The process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored.
5
Q
What are the three types of encoding processes?
A
- Semantic encoding
- Visual Imagery
- Organizational encoding
6
Q
What is semantic encoding?
A
Semantic encoding is the process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory.
7
Q
What do researchers say about semantic encoding?
A
Researchers have discovered that long-term retention is greatly enhanced by semantic encoding.
8
Q
What does visual imagery encoding refer to?
A
Visual imagery encoding refers to the process of storing new information by converting it into mental pictures.
9
Q
Why does visual imagery encoding work so well?
A
- Visual imagery encoding does some of the same things as semantic encoding. When you create a visual image, you relate incoming information to knowledge already in memory.
- When you use visual imagery to encode words and other verbal information, you end up with two mental placeholders: a visual one, and a verbal one.
10
Q
What does organizational encoding refer to?
A
The process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items.
If you memorize a bunch of different words such as apple, cherry, table lion, couch, etc. You can encode them organizationally by separating them into categories such as fruits, animals, and furniture.
11
Q
What does the evolutionary perspective say about encoding?
A
Memory mechanisms that help us survive and reproduce should be preserved by natural selection.
12
Q
What is one advantage of encoding surival-related information?
A
- It draws on elements of semantic, visual, and organizational encoding. All three together produce high levels of subsequent memory.
13
Q
What is sensory storage?
A
Sensory storage is a type of memory storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less.
14
Q
What is iconic and echoic memory?
A
Iconic - a fast decaying store of visual information
Echoic - a fast decaying store of auditory information.
15
Q
Sensory memory gives us a _______?
A
smooth perceptual experience.
16
Q
What is short-term memory?
A
Short-term memory holds nonsensory information for more than a few seconds but less than a minute.
17
Q
How do make sure information enters our short-term memory?
A
Attention. We need to attend to information by being attentive to what we are being told. If we get distracted and shift our focus, we tend to lose that previous information.
18
Q
How do we strengthen our short-term memory?
A
Rehearsal and Chunking.
19
Q
What does rehearsal refer to?
A
Rehearsal is the process of keeping the information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it.
20
Q
What are the common types of rehearsal?
A
Maintenance rehearsal - Repeating things over and over again.
Elaborative Rehearsal - a technique that involves thinking about the meaning of the term to be remembered, as opposed to simply repeating the word to yourself over and over.
21
Q
What type of rehearsal is more efficient?
A
Elaborative rehearsal is more efficient.
22
Q
What is the serial position effect?
A
This refers to the observation that the first few and last few items in a series are more likely to be recalled than the items in the middle.
23
Q
What does the primacy effect refer to?
A
Refers to the enhanced recall of the first few items in the list
24
Q
What does the recency effect refer to?
A
Refers to the enhanced recall of the last few items in the list
25
How many items can short term memory hold at once?
Short-term memory can hold up to 7 meaningful items at once.
26
What does chunking refer to?
Chunking involves combining small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks.
27
What is an example of chunking?
Restaurant servers who use organizational encoding to remember orders are essentially chunking the information.
28
When can chunking become difficult?
When you read a paper in a field you are not familiar with, or in a language, you are not familiar with it, it becomes harder to chunk.
29
What is working memory/short term memory?
Working memory refers to the active maintenance of information in short-term storage.
30
What are the subsystems of working memory?
There are two subsystems that store and manipulate information.
1. Visual images - (the visuospatial sketchpad)
2. Verbal Information - (the phonological loop)
Episodic buffer - integrates visual and verbal information from the subsystems
Central executive - coordinates the subsystems and the episodic buffer
31
What happens to individuals who struggle with working memory tasks?
These individuals have shown difficulty in learning new information, as well as performing in the classroom.
32
What is long-term memory storage?
A type of memory storage that holds information for hours, days, weeks, or years.
You can access your long-term memories even after years of not having thought of those items.
33
What region of the brain is critical for putting new information into the long-term store?
The hippocampal region.
34
Individuals who have sustained damage to this region suffer from____?
Anterograde amnesia - the inability to transfer new information from the short-term storage to the long-term storage
Retrograde amnesia - the inability to retrieve information that was acquired before the injury or a particular date
35
What does consolidation refer to?
Consolidation is the process by which memories become stable in the brain.
36
Why is consolidation important?
Shortly after encoding, memories exist in a fragile state that can be disrupted easily. Once consolidation has occurred, they are more resistant to disruption.
37
What types of consolidation are there?
1. Occurs over seconds to minutes.
| 2. Occurs over days, weeks, months, and years. This involves the transfer of information to long-term storage sites.
38
If a person suffered an injury from a car crash, and cannot recall what happened during those few seconds or minutes before the crash, the injury probably prevented______?
consolidation of short-term memory into long-term memory.
39
How does memory get consolidated?
The act of recollecting, thinking, and talking about a memory helps contribute to consolidation. Even sleep plays an important role in memory consolidation.
40
What is reconsolidation?
Memories can be vulnerable to disruption when they are recalled, thus requiring them to be consolidated again. This process is known as reconsolidation.
41
How does reconsolidation help in reducing traumatic memories?
If memory is disrupted during reconsolidation, it can modify the previous memory.
42
Where are the memories stored?
Memory storage depends on synapses. Research suggests that long-term storage involves the growth of new synaptic connections.
43
What are retrieval cues?
Pieces of external information associated with the stored information that helps us bring it to mind.
44
What is an example of a retrieval cue?
Perhaps you went to a party many years ago. One day while you are driving, a song comes on the radio that reminds you of the event.
45
What is the encoding-specificity principle?
Thie principle states that a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps re-create the specific way in which information was initially encoded. It also states that human memories are more easily retried if external conditions at the time of retrieval are similar to those in existence at the time the memory was stored (external conditions).
46
What is state-dependent retrieval?
The process whereby information tends to be better recalled when the person is in the same physiological or psychological state that they were in during the time of encoding.
47
What is transfer-appropriate processing?
The process engaged during retrieval match the cognitive processes that were engaged when the material was encoded.
48
What is an example of transfer-appropriate processing?
Say you were studying for an exam and you chose to practice using multiple-choice questions, and your friend chose to re-read the textbook over to practice. When you got to the exam and it happened to be multiple-choice, it is likely you will do better than your friend.
49
How can retrieval improve or change your memories?
1. Improvement - rather than re-reading twice, retrieving information more often can strengthen a retrieved memory.
2. Disadvantage - retrieval from long-term memory can sometimes impair subsequent recall of related items.
50
What are the two main types of long-term memory?
Implicit and explicit memory.
51
What are explicit (declarative) memories?
Memories that consciously or intentionally retrieve past experiences.
52
What are implicit memories?
When past experiences influence later behaviour and performance, even without an effort or awareness of recollection.
Implicit memories are not consciously recalled, but their presence is implied by our actions.
53
What is procedural memory?
Procedural memory refers to the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or by "knowing how" to do things.
54
What is an example of procedural memory?
The ability to ride your bike, tie your laces, or play the guitar.
55
What is priming?
A form of implicit memory. Priming refers to an enhanced ability to think of a stimulus such as a word or an object as a result of recent exposure to that stimulus.
56
What are the types of priming?
Perceptual Priming - reflects implicit memory for the sensory features of an item
Conceptual Priming - reflects implicit memory for the meaning of a word or how you would use an object
57
What is an example of priming?
If you walked past a golden retriever on your way to school, and then at school, you were asked to name a dog breed, you will likely say golden retriever because it's in your recent memory.
58
What are the types of explicit memories?
Episodic and semantic.
59
What are semantic memories?
A network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world.
60
What are episodic memories?
A collection of past, personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place.
61
What determines what we remember?
The things that we remember, happen to be the things we pay attention to.
62
What are the 4 stages of recognition? (refer to photo)
1. Stimulus
2. Sensory Detection
3. Recognition of Meaning
4. Response
63
What is early-stage filtering?
Attention can filter out things that are not necessary before recognition of meaning.
64
What is late-stage filtering?
This filtering occurs after the recognition of meaning. At this stage, we have not fully processed the information, but we have recognized that it does have meaning. Usually occurs with human speech.
65
Explain the cocktail party effect
This effect explains the concept of selective attention
In a crowded place, you may be talking to someone, and you may think you are filtering out other information in the room, but if you suddenly hear your name, you immediately orient yourself to that sound,
66
The cocktail party effect is an example of ______?
Late-stage filtering. This is because you have recognized that there is a meaning of the stimulus.
67
Who developed the levels of processing theory, and who was it developed by?
It was developed by Craik and Lockhart. They hypothesized that the deeper information is processed when it comes in, the better it will be remembered.
Essentially, the more you do with the information as it comes in, the better it is remembered.
68
What are the three levels of processing?
1. Structural (physical appearance) = shallow
* Physical appearance as in, what colour was the word, what does it look like?
2. Phonemic (sound) = intermediate
3. Semantic (meaning) = deep
69
What does paivios dual-encoding hypothesis?
Visual and phonemic together builds a better memory. Visuals help us access memory because we have phenomic and visual cues to refer to.
70
What is self-referent encoding?
Coming up with examples from your own life is more memorable than reading examples from a textbook.
71
What are the three ways of improving encoding?
1. Elaborative rehearsal
2. visual imagery
3. self-referent encoding
72
What were Aristotle and Plato's thoughts on memory?
They thought memories were like etchings on wax tablets. This suggests that our memories are pliable (can be modified). This is true. They also thought that long-term memory was fragile and that memories could be erased. This part is not true.
73
What did Atkinson and Shiffrin make?
They made the modal model, to explain our different phases of memory storage, duration, how things get into memories, and how things get lost over time.
74
What is the duration of short-term memory?
In Psychology, short-term memory refers to the last 30 seconds to one minute. Anything after that is considered to be long-term memory. Non-psychologists would use the term short-term memory to describe something that may have taken place a couple of days ago.
75
What were Sperling's hypotheses on sensory memory?
1. Sensory memory has a low capacity. Not many items can be remembered at a time.
2. Sensory memory has a high capacity but it fades quickly
76
What is partial recall?
A study was done to test whether sensory memory had low or high capacity.
77
What were the main findings of this study?
1. Sensory memory has high capacity but it fades very quickly
2. The faster the cue is presented, the better the recall.
3. This sensory recall experiment only works on physical characteristics (red letters, bottom row, etc.) Using non-physical characteristics will not work.
78
Why does the use of vowels or non-physical characteristics not work?
This requires a type of processing that does not occur in sensory memory.
79
What are the limitations of short-term memory?
1. ~20 seconds without rehearsal
| 2. Miller's magic number says 7 +/- 2 items
80
What is the difference between short-term memory and working memory?
STM refers to holding small pieces of information for brief intervals
WM refers to holding and manipulating (processing) information for brief intervals
81
What is the visuospatial sketchpad responsible for in working memory?
It is responsible for holding visual and spatial information (images, locations, etc.).
Types of tasks: mental rotation task or abstract figure
82
What is an example of the visuospatial sketchpad in use?
Close your eyes and visualize the path from where you are sitting to the front door.
83
What is the phonological loop responsible for in working memory?
Responsible for repeating verbal information like speech, written text, and sign language.
Articulatory rehearsal - repetition
84
What is the central executive responsible for?
It coordinates the visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop. The central executive does not do any work, it oversees everything. It also helps resolve the unconscious (braking in a car) and conscious conflict (not bumping into someone).
85
What are some different ways to improve memory?
1. Distribute your time
2. The Generation Effect - coming up with material and examples yourself, writing notes in your own words, rather than just copying from the textbook
3. Write notes on paper, not on the computer. Individuals who write on the computer tend to try and write down everything that is being said, rather than trying to summarize things into their own words
4. The Testing Effect - Material you are tested on will be remembered better if you are able to see your mistakes
5. Match context - a study in the same area that you will write the exam in, study during similar times, and in the same mindset
6. Reduce Interference - Change the type of information you are studying, and the order of it. This helps against the primary and recency effect.
86
What are the limitations of long-term memory?
It is thought to have an unlimited capacity and can be held over long periods of time.
87
How is knowledge organized?
Information is organized into schemas. A schema can be defined as our expectations of the world around us. Schemas can be violated. An example: if you go to class every day, you expect the same things to happen. One day if you go to class and everyone is dressed in costumes, your regular expectation of class has been violated.
88
Is a network or hierarchal model better for explaining memory?
A network model because they take account of how things are related, and how quickly they can come to mind.
89
Without context, the name of your childhood best friend would be considered a___?
Semantic memory.
90
What is an autobiographical memory?
A type of explicit memory, that contains both episodic and semantic memories. These include dated experiences that tell you about your life. Examples include your age, place of birth, etc.
91
What do some people refer to implicit memory as?
Muscle memory.
92
What are two types of retrieval failures?
Accessibility - information is there, but you are unable to access it at that time
Availability - information is no longer there
93
Can we test availability?
No.
94
What does Ebbinghaus forgetting curve tell us?
As time progresses, retention does taper off. Initially, retention will drop significantly, but then it will start to normalize.
95
Why do people forget?
1. Trace decay - the information just fades over time
| 2. Interference - other information interferes with your ability to recall target information
96
What is retroactive interference?
New learning interferes with old learning.
97
What is proactive interference?
Old learning interferes with new learning.
98
Why does the primacy and recency effect occur?
There is less interference. At the beginning of the list, there is no previous interference.
99
What is the difference between prospective and retrospective memory?
Prospective memory refers to being able to carry out some intended action in the absence of any explicit reminder to do so, whereas retrospective memories are those from the past.
100
How do we behaviourally measure prospective memories?
Lab tasks and field tasks.
101
What is an example of a lab task?
Every time I hand you a red pen please sign your name.
102
What is an example of a field task?
If you see a yogurt commercial on TV, call me and leave me a message.
103
What are the pros and cons of lab tasks?
Pros - high control, and you know exactly what the participant is exposed to
Cons - fairly artificial, and not representative of a real-world situation
104
What are the pros and cons of field tasks?
Pros - more realistic
| Cons - no control over the environment or participant
105
What is learning?
Any relatively durable (not necessarily permanent), change in behaviour or knowledge due to experience. If something you know, or something you do changes as a result of experience, it is called learning.
106
What does habituation refer to?
Habituation refers to a general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding.
107
What does sensitization refer to?
Sensitization occurs when the presentation of a stimulus leads to an increased response to a later stimulus. For example, people whose houses have been broken into may later become hypersensitive to late-night sounds that wouldn’t have bothered them previously.
108
What did behaviourists think about learning?
Behaviourists believed that learning did not require any mental activity, and was purely behavioural.
109
What is classical conditioning?
Classical conditioning occurs when a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally produces a response.
110
What did John B. Watson think about classical conditioning?
As a behaviourist, he believed that an organism experiences events or stimuli that are observable and measurable. You can directly observe and measure these changes in an organism without having to consider the mind.
111
What is an unconditioned stimulus?
The unconditioned stimulus (US), is something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism. In Pavlov’s experiment, this was the presentation of food.
112
What is an unconditioned response?
The unconditioned response (UR) is a reflexive reaction that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism. In the case of Pavlov’s experiment, it was the salivation.
113
What is a neutral stimulus?
A stimulus that does not produce any response.
114
What is a conditioned stimulus?
A neutral stimulus that has been paired with the UCS to condition a response. Now the neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus.
115
What does acquisition refer to?
Acquisition is the phase of classical condition when the CS (conditioned stimulus) and the US are presented together.
116
What does extinction refer to?
Extinction is the gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US.
117
What does spontaneous recovery refer to?
Spontaneous recovery refers to the tendency of learned behaviour to recover from extinction after a rest period.
118
What does second-order conditioning refer to?
Second-order conditioning is a type of learning whereby a controlled stimulus is paired with a stimulus that became associated with the uncontrolled stimulus in an earlier procedure. In Pavlov’s experiment, he paired a new CS, a black square, with the now reliable buzzer tone. Then, after training, his dogs produced a salivary response to the black square, even though the square itself had never been directly associated with the food.
119
What does generalization refer to?
Generalization refers to a controlled response by a stimulus that is slightly different from the original CS. For example, if you change the can opener you use to open your pet's food, your dog will still respond in the same way, even though the CS is slightly different.
120
The more the new stimulus changes, the ____ conditioned responding is observed.
1. less
121
What is discrimination?
The capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli.
122
What are the main points of the Little Albert experiment?
Watson paired a white rat (CS) with a very loud sound to condition little Albert to be fearful of it.
Little Albert displayed generalization because he then showed fear to a white rabbit, a Santa mask, and other items.
123
What was Watson's goal in this experiment?
1. He wanted to show that a relatively complex reaction could be conditioned using Pavlovian techniques.
2. He wanted to show that emotional responses, like fear, could be produced by classical conditioning, and therefore do not need unconscious processes.
3. He wanted to confirm that conditioning could be applied to humans as well as other animals.
124
What does biological preparedness refer to?
When an organism is able to learn particular associations over other kinds.
125
Classical conditioning works with ____ behaviours whereas operant conditioning works with ____ behaviours.
1. reactive
| 2. active
126
What is operant conditioning?
It refers to how consequences of an organism's behaviour determine whether it will repeat that same behaviour in the future.
127
What does Thorndike's law of effect say?
The law of effect states that behaviours followed by a positive outcome tend to be repeated, whereas behaviours that lead to a negative outcome tend to not be repeated.
128
What did behaviourists think of OC?
Thorndike’s work still resonated with behaviourists because it was still observable, quantifiable, and free from explanations involving the mind.
129
How did Skinner approach OC?
Skinner's study of learning focused on reinforcement and punishment.
130
What are reinforcers and punishers?
A reinforcer is any stimulus or event that increases the likelihood of the behaviour that led to it, whereas a punisher is any stimulus or event that decreases the likelihood of the behaviour that led to it.
131
What are the 4 types we learned about?
Positive reinforcement (a stimulus is ADDED that increases the likelihood of a behaviour)
A negative reinforcement (a stimulus is REMOVED that increases the likelihood of a behaviour)
A positive punishment (a stimulus is ADDED that reduces the likelihood of a behaviour)
A negative punishment (a stimulus is REMOVED that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour).
132
What are primacy reinforcers?
Reinforcers that help satisfy biological needs or desires. Examples include food, water, and shelter.
133
What are secondary reinforcers?
Reinforcers that do not rely on biological need. Examples include money, verbal approval, an award, etc.
134
What is a key determinant of reinforcer effectiveness?
A key determinant of the effectiveness of a reinforcer is the amount of time between the occurrence of a behaviour and the reinforcer. The more time between the two, the less effective the reinforcer. This may be because when an organism performs a behaviour, and the reinforcer is not provided soon enough, the organism may not know which behaviour should be reinforced.
135
Why is punishment not always effective in changing behaviour?
In real life, usually, punishment cannot be applied right away due to environmental settings. If someone cheats on a test, it may not be detected for a couple of days. If a child has a tantrum in the mall, the parent cannot set a time out for the child at that exact moment.
136
What is stimulus control?
In behavioral psychology, stimulus control is a phenomenon in operant conditioning that occurs when an organism behaves in one way in the presence of a given stimulus and another way in its absence.
137
Does extinction apply in OC?
As in classical conditioning, operant behaviour undergoes extinction when the reinforcements stop. Ex: you would not keep putting money into a vending machine if it failed to give you the promised candy or soda.
138
What is the difference between operant conditioning and classical conditioning?
In classical conditioning, the US occurs on every trial, no matter what the organism does. In operant conditioning, the reinforcements occur only when the proper response has been made.
Unlike in classical conditioning, where the sheer number of learning trials was important, the pattern with which reinforcements appeared was crucial in operant conditioning.
139
What are the types of schedules of reinforcement used?
1. Fixed-interval schedules
2. Variable-interval schedules
3. Fixed-ratio schedules
4. Variable-ratio schedules
140
What is a fixed-interval schedule?
Reinforcers are presented at fixed time periods, provided that the appropriate response is made. Acquisition takes longer, and it has low resistance to extinction.
141
What is a variable-interval schedule?
A behaviour is reinforced on the basis of an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement. It has high resistance to extinction.
142
What is a fixed-ratio schedule?
Reinforcement is delivered right after a specific number of responses have been made. You can get the most amount of treats with this type of schedule. it has low resistance to extinction though.
143
What is a variable-ratio schedule?
The delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of responses.
144
What is the difference between continuous reinforcement and intermittent reinforcement?
Continuous reinforcement refers to every response being followed by the presence of a reinforcer. Continuous reinforcement helps with fast learning, but if the rewards stop, extinction occurs quickly. Intermittent reinforcement refers to when only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement. Intermittent reinforcement produces behaviour that is much more resistant to extinction than does a continuous reinforcement schedule.
145
What does shaping refer to?
Learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behaviour. In circus animals, you cannot always train them to master the full motion right away. Instead, you put reinforcers whenever they are in the right direction for the intended motion, hence shaping their behaviour.
146
What does latent learning refer to?
Latent learning is a form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response. It occurs without any obvious reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned.
147
What is observational learning?
Observational learning refers to how an organism learns by watching the actions of others. Observational learning challenges behaviourisms reinforcement-based explanations of classical and operant conditioning. This is because, in observational learning, there is not necessarily a punisher or reinforcer directed at the organism of interest.
148
What did Bandura study to explain observational learning?
Bandura used a study where children were playing with toys and an adult came in and was playing with a doll. After some time, the adult became aggressive with the doll. When the children were allowed to play with the doll, they showed more aggression towards it. Children in another condition, watched the woman play with the doll in a normal manner. When they got to play with the doll, they did not show aggressive behaviour.
149
What is a diffusion chain?
A process whereby individuals initially learn a behaviour by observing another individual perform that behaviour, and then become models from which other individuals learn the behaviour.
150
What is implicit learning?
Implicit learning refers to learning that takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition. Habituation is a form of implicit learning. Things can start explicitly, and then over time become more implicit. Ex: driving a car.
151
What does Ebbinhgaus's learning curve state?
When you learn something initially, you take in a lot quite fast, but over time it starts to taper off.
152
How was habituation used in infant studies?
One example of showing habituation in infants is to show them photos of the same thing over and over. After some time they will become disinterested. Then, if we show them something new, it peaks their interest.
153
What are the 3 features of classical conditioning that increase the connection of learning?
Contiguity - How close in time do the two things happen. The CS should be presented with the UCS at the same time to elicit a response.
Contingency - how much does one event depend on the other. If you have pre-exposure to the US too often, it is harder to condition with the CS. If you have pre-exposure to the CS without the US, it is harder to condition. This is known as latent inhibition.
Salience - How noticeable or in your face is the pairing. In the case of the tuning fork, the sound is loud and obvious.
154
What are the types of classical conditioning?
Forward - fastest for learning purposes. The NS is shown slightly before the UCS.
Trace - slower for learning. The NS is shown a lot sooner than the UCS.
Simultaneous - NS and UCS are shown at the same time.
Backward - slowest conditioning. NS is shown after UCS.
155
What is a food aversion an example of?
Classical conditioning. If we become sick from something, we will likely not eat It again. Food aversions are usually one-trial learning.
156
What are the side effects of punishment?
1. In animals they may try to escape the situation if they are punished
2. Avoidance - in humans, we tend to avoid the person who is punishing us. This does not necessarily stop the behaviour though.
157
What is the Premack principle?
The idea that you can use the opportunity to do something enjoyable as a reinforcer. Ex: if you do the dishes now, you can go out with your friends later.
158
What is chaining?
A way to develop a sequence of complex behaviors.
159
What affects the rate of operant conditioning?
1. Satiety - how much of that thing do they already have? If you are offered a dessert after eating a full meal, it may not seem that desirable.
2. Immediacy - If you are rewarded right away, it is more likely to lead to learning the behaviour
3. Contingency - you only get the reward if you do the behaviour
4. Size - bigger rewards, are more reinforcing than others.
160
What does latent learning tell us?
We do not need reinforcers/punishers to learn
161
How does the t-maze show latent learning?
Rats were allowed pre-exposure to a maze, whereas one group was not. Then they were put into the maze and had to look for the food. Rats who had pre-exposure found the food faster, indicating that they had learned about the maze initially, even without reinforcement.
162
How does the morris water maze teach us about latent learning?
The use of visual landmarks helps the rat to learn where the platform is, even if they placed anywhere in the maze.
163
What is an example of latent learning in real life?
If you take the bus, you may not think you are paying particular attention to the streets and landmarks, but when you start to drive, you realize that you have some knowledge about streets and landmarks.
164
What are the basic processes in observational learning?
Attention - you must be paying attention to the model being rewarded or punished
Retention - you have to retain the behaviour or consequences you say
Reproduction - you have to be able to reproduce that behaviour
Motivation - you have to be motivated to do it
165
What does the social cognitive theory state?
We learn by observing others in our social environment.
1. Personal
2. Behavioural outcome
3. Environmental - situational influence
166
What is the purpose of mirror neurons?
Important for observational learning, because they are specialized neurons that help you mimic and understand the behaviours of others. They are also important for empathy, and being able to predict what other people are thinking in a situation.
167
Reinforcement influences production more than____?
Acquisition.
