Test 1 Flashcards by Phoebe Fulton

Professor Hotzenplotz is planning some experiments, and is deciding which methods to choose. He first wants to measure the activity of individual cells in the cortex, and potentially be able to see the fine structures of those cells such as their dendrites. This will require an animal model and an expensive microscope, which he has access to. His chosen method will be ___________. After this, he wants to see what would happen to the animal’s behaviour if those cells were ‘silenced’ and could no longer fire. To do this, he uses a virus to make those cells express special proteins that are light-sensitive. When yellow light is shone on the cells, they no longer fire. This method is called ___________. Finally, the Professor wants to know if cells are active in the same area of the human brain during a similar task. He decides he needs a method that will allow him to measure brain activity in a specific region of the cortex, and he decides he doesn’t care much about good spatial resolution but wants excellent temporal resolution of cortical activity. He decides to use ________________.

two-photon microscopy, optogenetics, EEG

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Recall your reading from Weeks 1 and 2. It’s said that the brain is a “hungry” organ, as it requires so much energy. However, there are mechanisms that may limit the brain’s energy use. For example, when your brain is expending energy, it will produce ________, which is a product formed from the key molecule used in cellular metabolism. This product is actually an inhibitory neurotransmitter, so may “apply the brakes” to neuronal activity and possibly drive mental fatigue.

adenosine

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Your reading for Weeks 1 and 2 mentioned that some psychedelics can increase the brain’s ________, whereas sleep has the opposite effect. In physics, this term describes how disordered a system is. In relation to brain function, it describes the complexity (i.e. number and variety) of signals and connections between different areas, and the consequences this may have on information storage.

Entropy

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The _____________ dopaminergic pathway from the ________________ to the _________________. This pathway is believed to be involved in generating ‘incentive salience. A separate pathway originates in the same area as the first pathway but projects to the _____________________. This pathway is involved in the generation of planned actions and is called the _______________ pathway.

mesolimbic; VTA; nucleus accumbens; prefrontal cortex; mesocortical

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“Field” electrophysiology can be used to record and measure the neuronal activity. A typical hippocampal “field recording” contains multiple events recorded after stimulation of the cortical afferents that project into the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. The first event is the ‘fiber volley’ (aka fibre volley), which is a measure of _____________________. The second event is the field excitatory postsynaptic potential (fEPSP), and the slope of this event can be used as a measure of _______________. The final event is the population spike (aka pop-spike) which reflects ______________________.

presynaptic potential, synaptic strength, postsynaptic action potential

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Long Term Potentiation (LTP) was first discovered in the hippocampus. his phenomenon is triggered by the neurotransmitter __________ when it activates the _________ receptor, causing Ca2 influx into the postsynaptic cell. This only happens when neurotransmitter is bound to the receptor and the cell is already sufficiently depolarised through the activation of local ________ receptors.

glutamate, NMDA, AMPA

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Henry Molaison (patient H.M.) suffered considerable memory deficits after his surgery. However, his performance on the mirror drawing task improved during training, but he had no recollection of training on the mirror drawing task. Thus, his deficits appeared to be specific to _________ memory. This is strange given that his lesions were specific to the _________ hippocampus, and this kind of damage doesn’t always result in memory deficits.

declarative, medial

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Schulz et al. (1993) measured the activity of midbrain dopamine neurons in monkeys who were trained to press a specific lever when a sensory cue was presented. Initially, there was a spike in dopamine neuron activity _______ a reward (juice) was presented. However, after sufficient training on the task, there was a spike in the activity of these neurons ________ the reward was presented.

after, before

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The hormone _____________ is secreted by cells in the __________. This hormone elicits satiety only when blood glucose is also high.

insulin, pancreas

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The hormone _________ is secreted by the ____________. This hormone is considered a “hunger hormone”.

grhelin, stomach

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The hormone ____________ is secured from cells called ___________. It is thought that weight loss triggers a reduction in the levels of this hormone, which contributes to an enhanced feeling of hunger. This may help explain “conservation mode” and why many diets fail.

leptin, adipocytes (fat cells)

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The hormone _________ is secreted by cells that line the small intestines. This hormone is believed to elicit a state _________, or nausea if released for prolonged periods.

CCK, satiety

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In the arcuate nucleus, two populations of cells are thought to drive hunger and satiety, respectively. The first are ____ neurons, who promote hunger by activating the orexigenic cells of the downstream _______________ (and inhibiting the anorexigenic cells of the ___________. The second population of cells in the arcuate nucleus are the ____ neurons, that have the opposite effects on downstream targets.

NPY, lateral hypothalamus, paraventricular nucleus, POMC

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Plagemann and colleagues (2010) found that overfeeding early in life promoted methylation tags to be set on the IRP gene, and this correlated with metabolic syndrome phenotypes in later life. Further, Huypens et al. (2016) found that mice fed a high-fat diet produced gametes (sperm and eggs) that produced offspring with metabolic syndrome phenotypes. These are examples of __________.

Epigenetics

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White matter plasticity involves the thickening and tightening of the ____________ that wraps around CNS axons. This form of plasticity is activity- dependent; when axons are highly active, the _________, which are glial cells, tighten their grip in order to speed up the ____________.

myelin sheath, oligodendrocytes, action potential

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Titos and colleagues (2023) found that a diet high in _________ correlated with less sensory responsiveness during sleep, and thus longer periods of sleep. This was due to the altered activity of neurons that release _________, which is a known arousal signal. In humans, Brandão et al. (2023) found that a diet high in _________ correlated with poorer sleep quality.

saturated fat, dopamine, glucose

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Karl Lashley’s famous hunt for the “engram” was a failure. He did not find the seat of memory in the cortex. Rather, he decided all cortical areas are equally capable of storing memory. He termed this the principle of __________. Further, Lashley concluded that the cortex worked as a whole to produce a given outcome such as memory. He termed this the principle of ________.

equipotential, mass action

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Recall Lori Zelster’s (2016) study that was mentioned in Week 4’s reading. Zelster used mice with a gene variant that is associated with anorexia nervosa in humans. This gene variant itself did not alter feeding behaviour in the mice. However, Zelster introduced two other variables: ___________ and stress via _________. Zelster found that the mice with the gene variant then stopped feeding.

reducing food/calorie restriction, social isolation

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Cannabinoids are believed to promote feeding by acting on the CB1 receptor found on hunger-related neurons in the hypothalamus. It seems possible that a CB1 receptor _________ could therefore be a useful ‘diet drug’. In practice, however, this has proven to be disastrous due to severe side effects such as (name one) __________.

antagonist, depression

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Deep brain stimulation (DBS) has been trialled as a means of treating obesity. However, targeting nuclei of the ___________ with DBS has given mixed results so far. Early results suggest that targeting the _________ system may be a better option.

hypothalamus, dopaminergic reward

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Recall your reading from Weeks 1 and 2. A leading model of creativity is the ___________ theory. This theory distinguishes two key components of creativity. The first is ___________, which involves using our existing knowledge for inspiration and perhaps making associations between ideas. This phase of creativity is believed to employ the “default mode network” of brain regions. The second phase is _______________, in which ideas are critiqued for their suitability as a means of achieving specific goals. This phase seems to rely on an “executive network”.

dual process, concept formulation, concept evaluation

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Recal Tyron et al: (1934) study on learning in rats. What evidence did they find is a role of “nature” (i.e. inheritance) in learning ability? What evidence was later provided by others that challenged Tyron et al.’s conclusions? (5 marks)

Rats performance in maze/learning ability could be selectively bred, i.e. it is heritable (1)
This shows that “nature” plays a role in learning ability (1)
Later evidence showed that this could be unlearned (0.5)
Environmental enrichment could improve performance of “maze-dull” rats (1)
This suggests that environment (nurture) also plays a role in learning ability (1)

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Recall your reading “Your amazing brain”, by George et al. (2024). Does infection cause dementia? What is the evidence? What are the purported mechanisms? (5 marks)

Brain has its own microbiome (0.5)
Evidence suggests that certain infections may increase the risk of dementia (1)
For example, herpes simplex virus type 1 has been linked to Alzheimer’s disease (1)
Proposed mechanisms include chronic inflammation and direct damage to brain cells (1)
However, more research is needed to establish causality (1)

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The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. Name the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order, starting at whichever point you prefer. (5 points)

H__________ → F_____ → M_________ b_____ → M_______________ t____ → A_______ t_______ n_____ (ATN) → I_______ C______ → C________ c_____ → C_______ → E_________ c_____ → H__________

Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → Hippocampus

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Two specific "set-point" theories of eating were presented in lecture. Briefly explain these theories, including how they are purported to work together. (5 marks)

- Lipostatic theory: body aims to maintain set-point levels of body fat (1) - Glucostatic theory: body aims to maintain set-point glucose levels (1) - These are both homeostatic theories that are used to explain how our body maintains stable glucose and fat levels (1) - Eating is a means of restoring the set point and is driven by these mechanisms (1) - Together, these theories suggest a comprehensive system for maintaining energy balance, with glucose levels providing immediate feedback and fat levels providing long-term regulation of food intake (1)

Briefly describe the three phases of insulin release. How can the phased release of insulin affect when we eat? (5 marks)

- 1. Cephalic phase occurs before food enters the stomach, triggered by sight, smell, or thought of food - 2. Digestive phase occurs as nutrients are absorbed into the blood stream - 3. Absorption phase occurs as nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream The phased release of insulin can affect when we eat by: - Cephalic phase insulin release prepares body for incoming food, potentially increasing appetite - Later phases lead to a drop in blood glucose, which may trigger hunger and further eating

From your reading for Week 3, briefly describe evidence from Latner and Stunkard's work that demonstrates how obese people are stigmatised. (5 marks)

- Children were shown a series of pictures (1) - They were asked whose they would want to be friends with, pictures of children with no notable features were marked highly, and obese children were ranked lowest (1) - Obese children in the study showed the same bias (1) - When the study was repeated years later, the gap between highest ranked and lowest ranked increased (1) - This showed societal bias is increasing over time (1)

From your reading for Week 4, recall the experiments of Walter Kaye. What did Kaye find with regards to brain function in people with or without anorexia nervosa? What did people with anorexia nervosa report about their state and what conclusions did Kaye reach?

- Kaye investigated the risk reward pathway of people with/without anorexia nervosa (AN) (1) - In people without AN, brain reward and motivation circuits activated strongly when offered sugar water after fasting. (1) - In people with AN, these same brain circuits showed much less activation after fasting (1) - People with anorexia could identify feeling hungry, but their brains didn't convert that into a desire to eat. (1) - Those with anorexia experienced heightened anxiety and inhibition, along with diminished reward signalling in their brains when hungry. (1) - Kaye concluded that people with anorexia may "miscode food as risky rather than rewarding," explaining their lack of drive to eat even when hungry. (1)

What is neurogenesis? Where does it occur and how it is thought to contribute to one aspect of cognition (use only information presented in PSYC317). (5 points)

- Neurogenesis is the process of generating new neurons from neural stem cells (1) - It primarily occurs in two regions of the adult brain (1): - The subventricular zone of the lateral ventricles, The subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus in the hippocampus - Neurogenesis in the hippocampus is thought to contribute to learning and memory (1) - Specifically, it may enhance pattern separation, the ability to distinguish between similar experiences or memories (1) - This process is believed to be important for forming distinct memories and avoiding confusion between similar events (1)

Briefly explain two contextual or societal factors mentioned in PSYC317 that could reinforce an obesogenic environment. How could an individual promote healthy eating in their own life or the lives of their peer group? Come up with your own strategy, emphasising how the brain's reward pathways can be harnessed. (5 points)

- Unhealthy foods stimulate our reward pathways/release dopamine (1) - Environmental/societal factors also do this, i.e. people often eat unhealthy foods wile out socialising/drinking (1) - Individuals can promote healthy eating in their own lives and peer group by positively reinforcing healthy eating habits (1) - This can be done by cooking a healthy meal with friends, joining a fitness group, etc (1) - People are also less likely to crave food that isn’t around/easy to access (avoid instant gratification) so trying to not bring unhealthy food home helps (1)

Professor Hotzenplotz is planning some experiments, and is deciding which methods to choose. He first wants to measure the activity of individual cells in the cortex, and potentially be able to see the fine structures of those cells such as their ________. This will require an animal model and an _______ microscope, which he has access to. His chosen method will be two-photon microscopy. After this, he wants to see what would happen to the animal's behaviour if those cells were 'silenced' and could no longer fire. To do this, he uses a virus to make those cells express special proteins that are ________. When yellow light is shone on the cells, they no longer fire. This method is called optogenetics. Finally, the Professor wants to know if cells are active in the same area of the human brain during a similar task. He decides he needs a method that will allow him to measure brain activity in a specific region of the cortex, and he decides he doesn't care much about good _______ resolution but wants excellent _______ resolution of cortical activity. He decides to use EEG.

dendrites; expensive; light-sensitive; spatial; temporal

Dr. Smith is investigating Alzheimer's disease and needs to examine the brain tissue of deceased patients at a cellular level. She wants to look for abnormal protein accumulations and changes in cell structure. For this purpose, she decides to use ___________. After her initial findings, she wants to get an even closer look at the synapses and fine cellular structures. To achieve this higher magnification, she opts for ___________. Finally, to compare her findings with living patients, Dr. Smith wants to non-invasively visualize the overall brain structure and potential atrophy in Alzheimer's patients. For this, she chooses ___________.

Microscopic Anatomy via Histology; Microscopic Anatomy via Electron Microscopy; Gross Anatomy via Imaging (CT, MRI, DTI)

Neuroscientist Dr. Johnson is studying brain connectivity in healthy adults. He first wants to map the white matter tracts connecting different brain regions. For this, he selects ___________. Next, he aims to measure brain activity across the entire brain while participants perform cognitive tasks, he chooses ___________. Lastly, Dr. Johnson wants to conduct the same experiment in a more natural setting, allowing participants to move around freely, though he knows this will come at the cost of lower resolution. He decides to use ___________.

DTI (Diffusion Tensor Imaging); Functional MRI (fMRI); Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS)

Neuroscientist Dr. Johnson is studying brain connectivity in healthy adults. He first wants to map the white matter tracts connecting different brain regions. For this, he selects ___________. Next, he aims to measure brain activity across the entire brain while participants perform cognitive tasks. He chooses ___________ for this purpose. Lastly, Dr. Johnson wants to conduct the same experiment in a more natural setting, allowing participants to move around freely, though he knows this will come at the cost of lower resolution. He decides to use ___________.

DTI (Diffusion Tensor Imaging); Functional MRI (fMRI); Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS)

Professor Garcia is conducting a comprehensive study on brain development. She begins by examining fetal brain structure during different stages of pregnancy, requiring a safe, non-invasive method. For this, she uses ___________. After birth, she wants to track the development of specific brain regions over the first few years of life, again using a method safe for children. She continues with ___________. Finally, to understand how these structural changes relate to cognitive development, she needs a method that can measure brain activity during simple tasks in young children. Considering the need for a child-friendly approach, she opts for ___________.

MRI; MRI; Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS)

Recall your reading from Weeks 1 and 2. It's said that the brain is a "______" organ, as it requires so much energy. However, there are mechanisms that may limit the brain's energy use. For example, when your brain is expending energy, it will produce glucose, which is a product formed from the key molecule used in cellular metabolism. This product is actually an _______ neurotransmitter, so may "apply the brakes" to neuronal activity and possibly drive __________.

hungry; inhibitory; mental fatigue

The brain uses approximately ___% of the body's energy despite only making up ___% of body weight.

20; 2

The molecule _______ builds up with mental effort, signaling tiredness and acting as a "brake" on brain activity

adenosine

The brain has its own microbiome consisting of approximately _______ species.

100,000

According to the Allen Brain Institute, the mouse brain contains _______ identified cell types, while the human brain draft atlas includes over _______ cell types

5200, 3300

Andrea Volterra's team discovered a new type of brain cell in 2023 that is a hybrid between _______ and _______, involved in spatial memory.

neurons; glia

Cognitive performance typically peaks around _______ during the day, with individual variations based on _______

noon, chronotype

Problem-solving ability tends to peak in a person's _______, while emotion perception is highest from the _______ to _______.

20s, 40s, 60s

The _______ network is associated with idea generation in creativity, while the _______ network is involved in idea evaluation

default, executive

Forgetting can be beneficial because it allows for _______ to changing environments and enables _______ by not fixating on specifics

adaptation, generalisation

The human brain is more like an _______ than a galaxy of stars because both show _______, where the whole is more than the sum of its parts

ant colony, emergence

Entropy

Your reading for Weeks 1 and 2 mentioned that some _________ can increase the brain’s entropy, whereas _________ has the opposite effect. In physics, this term describes how ________ a system is. In relation to brain function, it describes the complexity (i.e. number and variety) of signals and connections between different areas, and the consequences this may have on information storage.

psychedelics; sleep; disordered

The mesolimbic ____________ pathway from the VTA to the nucleus accumbens. This pathway is believed to be involved in generating '__________’. A separate pathway originates in the same area as the first pathway but projects to the prefrontal cortex. This pathway is involved in the ________________ and is called the mesocortical pathway.

dopaminergic; ‘incentive salience’; generation of planned actions

_____________ can be used to record and measure neuronal activity. A typical hippocampal "field recording" contains multiple events recorded after stimulation of the cortical afferents that project into the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. The first event is the '______________’, which is a measure of presynaptic potential. The second event is the _________________, and the slope of this event can be used as a measure of synaptic strength. The final event is the _______________ which reflects postsynaptic action potential.

Field electrophysiology; ‘fibre volley’; field excitatory postsynaptic potential (fEPSP); population spike (aka pop-spike)

Long Term Potentiation (LTP) was first discovered in the __________. This phenomenon is triggered by the neurotransmitter glutamate when it activates the NMDA receptor, causing _____ influx into the ________ cell. This only happens when neurotransmitter is bound to the receptor and the cell is already sufficiently _________ through the activation of local AMPA receptors.

hippocampus; Ca2; postsynaptic; depolarised

Henry Molaison (patient H.M.) suffered considerable memory deficits after his surgery. However, his performance on the _______________ task improved during training, but he had no recollection of training. Thus, his deficits appeared to be specific to declarative memory. This is strange given that his lesions were specific to the medial __________, and this kind of damage doesn't always result in memory deficits.

mirror drawing; hippocampus

Schulz et al. (1993) measured the activity of ________ dopamine neurons in monkeys who were trained to press a specific lever when a sensory cue was presented. Initially, there was a spike in dopamine neuron activity after a reward (juice) was presented. However, after sufficient training on the task, there was a spike in the activity of these neurons before the reward was presented.

midbrain

Schulz et al. (1993) measured the activity of midbrain __________ neurons in monkeys who were trained to press a specific lever when a sensory cue was presented. Initially, there was a spike in _________ neuron activity after a reward (juice) was presented. However, after sufficient training on the task, there was a spike in the activity of these neurons before the reward was presented.

dopamine; dopamine

The hormone insulin is secreted by cells in the pancreas. This hormone elicits ________ only when blood glucose is also high.

satiety

The hormone insulin is secreted by cells in the pancreas. This hormone elicits satiety only when __________ is also high.

blood glucose

The hormone grhelin is secreted by the stomach. This hormone is considered a ________ hormone.

hunger

The hormone leptin is secured from cells called adipocytes. It is thought that weight loss triggers a ________ in the levels of this hormone, which contributes to an enhanced feeling of _______. This may help explain "__________ mode" and why many diets fail.

reduction; hunger; conservation

The hormone CCK is secreted by cells that line the _____________. This hormone is believed to elicit a state satiety, or _______ if released for prolonged periods.

small intestines; nausea

In the _________, two populations of cells are thought to drive hunger and satiety, respectively. The first are NPY neurons, who promote ________ by activating the orexigenic cells of the downstream lateral hypothalamus (and inhibiting the anorexigenic cells of the paraventricular nucleus). The second population of cells are the POMC neurons, that have the opposite effects on downstream targets.

arcuate nucleus; hunger

In the arcuate nucleus, two populations of cells are thought to drive hunger and satiety, respectively. The first are NPY neurons, who promote hunger by activating the __________ cells of the downstream lateral hypothalamus (and inhibiting the __________ cells of the paraventricular nucleus). The second population of cells in the arcuate nucleus are the POMC neurons, that have the opposite effects on downstream targets.

orexigenic; anorexigenic

In the arcuate nucleus, two populations of cells are thought to drive hunger and satiety, respectively. The first are NPY neurons. The second population of cells in the arcuate nucleus are the POMC neurons, who promote ________ by _________ the orexigenic cells of the downstream lateral hypothalamus (and _______ the anorexigenic cells of the paraventricular nucleus).

satiety; inhibiting; activating

White matter plasticity involves the thickening and tightening of the myelin sheath that wraps around CNS axons. This form of plasticity is activity- dependent; when axons are highly active, the oligodendrocytes, which are ____ cells, tighten their grip in order to speed up the action potential.

CNS; glial

______________ plasticity involves the thickening and tightening of the myelin sheath that wraps around CNS axons. This form of plasticity is activity- dependent; when axons are highly active, the oligodendrocytes, which are glial cells, tighten their grip in order to speed up the action potential.

White matter

Titos and colleagues (2023) found that a diet high in saturated fat correlated with ____ sensory responsiveness during sleep, and thus ______ periods of sleep. This was due to the altered activity of neurons that release dopamine, which is a known ______ signal. In humans, Brandão et al. (2023) found that a diet high in glucose correlated with ______ sleep quality.

less; longer; arousal; poorer

Karl Lashley's famous hunt for the "______" was a failure. He did not find the seat of memory in the ______. Rather, he decided all _____ areas are equally capable of storing memory. He termed this the principle of equipotential. Further, Lashley concluded that the ______ worked as a whole to produce a given outcome such as memory. He termed this the principle of mass action.

engram; cortex; cortical; cortex

Karl Lashley's famous hunt for the "engram" was a failure. He did not find the seat of ________ in the cortex. Rather, he decided all cortical areas are equally capable of storing memory. He termed this the principle of equipotential. Further, Lashley concluded that the cortex worked as a whole to produce a given outcome such as _________. He termed this the principle of mass action.

memory; memory

Recall Lori Zelster's (2016) study that was mentioned in Week 4's reading. Zelster used mice with a gene variant that is associated with _____________ in humans. This gene variant itself did not alter __________ in the mice. However, Zelster introduced two other variables: _________ and stress via social isolation. Zelster found that the mice with the gene variant then stopped _______.

anorexia nervosa; feeding behaviour; calorie restriction; feeding. Recall Lori Zelster's (2016) study that was mentioned in Week 4's reading. Zelster used mice with a gene variant that is associated with anorexia nervosa in humans. This gene variant itself did not alter feeding behaviour in the mice. However, Zelster introduced two other variables: calorie restriction and stress via social isolation. Zelster found that the mice with the gene variant then stopped feeding.

__________ are believed to promote feeding by acting on the CB1 receptor found on hunger-related neurons in the hypothalamus. It seems possible that a CB1 receptor antagonist could therefore be a useful 'diet drug'. In practice, however, this has proven to be disastrous due to severe side effects such as depression.

Cannabinoids

Cannabinoids are believed to promote feeding by acting on the ___ receptor found on hunger-related neurons in the ___________. It seems possible that a ___ receptor antagonist could therefore be a useful 'diet drug'. In practice, however, this has proven to be disastrous due to severe side effects such as depression.

CB1; hypothalamus; CB1

Cannabinoids are believed to promote _______ by acting on the CB1 receptor found on ______-related neurons in the hypothalamus. It seems possible that a receptor antagonist could therefore be a useful '_____ drug'. In practice, however, this has proven to be disastrous due to severe side effects such as depression.

feeding; hunger; diet

________________ has been trialled as a means of treating obesity. However, targeting nuclei of the hypothalamus with ________________ has given mixed results so far. Early results suggest that targeting the dopaminergic reward system may be a better option.

Deep brain stimulation (DBS); Deep brain stimulation (DBS)

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) has been trialled as a means of treating ______. However, targeting nuclei of the hypothalamus with DBS has given mixed results so far. Early results suggest that targeting the dopaminergic reward system may be a better option.

obesity

Recall your reading from Weeks 1 and 2. A leading model of ________ is the dual process theory. This theory distinguishes two key components of _______. The first is _______ formulation which involves using our existing knowledge for inspiration and perhaps making association between ______. This phase of _______ is believed to employ the "default mode network" of brain regions. The second phase is ________ evaluation, in which ______ are critiqued for their suitability as a means of achieving specific goals. This phase seems to rely on an “executive network”.

creativity; creativity; concept; ideas; creativity; concept ideas

Recall your reading from Weeks 1 and 2. A leading model of creativity is the dual process theory. This theory distinguishes two key components of creativity The first is concept formulation which involves using ______________ for inspiration and perhaps making ________ between ideas. This phase of creativity is believed to employ the "default mode network" of brain regions. The second phase is concept evaluation, in which ideas are _______ for their suitability as a means of achieving specific ______. This phase seems to rely on an “executive network”.

our existing knowledge; association; critiqued; goals

Recall your reading from Weeks 1 and 2. A leading model of creativity is the dual process theory. This theory distinguishes two key components of creativity The first is concept formulation which involves using our existing knowledge for inspiration and perhaps making association between ideas. This phase of creativity is believed to employ the __________ of brain regions. The second phase is concept evaluation, in which ideas are critiqued for their suitability as a means of achieving specific goals. This phase seems to rely on an ______________.

"default mode network"; “executive network”

Recal Tyron et al (1934) study on learning in rats. Rats performance in maze/learning ability could be __________. This shows that ________ plays a role in learning ability. Later evidence showed that this could be unlearned. ____________ enrichment could improve performance of “maze-dull” rats. This suggests that ____________ also plays a role in learning ability.

selectively bred; “nature”; Environmental; environment (nurture)

Recal Tyron et al (1934) study on learning in rats. Rats _____________________ could be selectively bred, i.e. it is heritable. This shows that “nature” plays a role in __________. Later evidence showed that this could be __________. Environmental enrichment could improve _________ of “maze-dull” rats. This suggests that environment (nurture) also plays a role in __________.

performance in maze/learning ability; learning ability; unlearned; performance; learning ability

Recall your reading "Your amazing brain", by George et al. (2024). Evidence suggests that certain ________ may increase the risk of dementia. For example, __________ has been linked to Alzheimer's disease. Proposed mechanisms include chronic _________ and direct damage to brain cells. However, more research is needed to establish causality.

infections; herpes simplex virus type 1; inflammation

Recall your reading "Your amazing brain", by George et al. (2024). Evidence suggests that certain infections may increase the risk of ________. For example, herpes simplex virus type 1 has been linked to _________ disease. Proposed mechanisms include chronic inflammation and direct damage to ________. However, more research is needed to establish causality.

dementia; Alzheimer's; brain cells

The ______ circuit connects many structures of the _____ system. It is believed to be important for both ______ and ______. The following are the structures and tracts of the circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus —> Fornix → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → Back to hippocampus

Papez; limbic; memory; emotion

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: _______________ → _______________ → _______________ → _______________ → _______________ → _______________ → _______________ → _______________ → _______________ → _______________

Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → hippocampus

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: _______________ → Fornix → _______________ → Mammillothalamic tract → _______________ → Internal Capsule → _______________ → Cingulum → _______________ → Perforant path → _______________

Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → Perforant path → Hippocampus

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → _______________ → Mammillary bodies → _______________ → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → _______________ → Cingulate cortex → _______________ → Entorhinal cortex → _______________ → Hippocampus

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: _______________ → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → _______________ → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → _______________ → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → _______________ → Hippocampus

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → _______________ → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → _______________ → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → _______________ → Entorhinal cortex → Perforant path → _______________

Fornix; Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN); Cingulum; Hippocampus

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → Fornix → _______________ → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → _______________ → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → _______________ → Perforant path → Hippocampus

Mammillary bodies; Internal Capsule; Entorhinal cortex

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: _______________ → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → _______________ → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → _______________ → Entorhinal cortex → Perforant path → Hippocampus

Hippocampus; Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN); Cingulum

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → _______________ → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → _______________ → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → _______________ → Hippocampus

Fornix; Internal Capsule; Perforant path

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → Fornix → _______________ → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → _______________ → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → Perforant path → _______________

Mammillary bodies; Cingulate cortex; Hippocampus

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → _______________ → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → _______________ → Perforant path → Hippocampus

Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN); Entorhinal cortex

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: _______________ → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → Perforant path → Hippocampus

Hippocampus

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → _______________ → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → Perforant path → Hippocampus

Fornix

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → Fornix → _______________ → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → Perforant path → Hippocampus

Mammillary bodies

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → _______________ → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → Perforant path → Hippocampus

Mammillothalamic tract

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → _______________ → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → Perforant path → Hippocampus

Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN)

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → _______________ → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → Perforant path → Hippocampus

Internal Capsule

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → _______________ → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → Perforant path → Hippocampus

Cingulate cortex

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → _______________ → Entorhinal cortex → Perforant path → Hippocampus

Cingulum

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → _______________ → Perforant path → Hippocampus

Entorhinal cortex

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → _______________ → Perforant path → Hippocampus

Entorhinal cortex

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → _______________ → Hippocampus

Perforant path

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → Perforant path → _______________

Hippocampus

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: _______________ → _______________ → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → Perforant path → Hippocampus

Hippocampus → Fornix

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → _______________ → _______________ → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → Perforant path → Hippocampus

Fornix → Mammillary bodies

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → Fornix → _______________ → _______________ → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → Perforant path → Hippocampus

Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → _______________ → _______________ → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → Perforant path → Hippocampus

Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN)

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → _______________ → _______________ → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → Perforant path → Hippocampus

Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → _______________ → _______________ → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → Perforant path → Hippocampus

Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → _______________ → _______________ → Entorhinal cortex → Perforant path → Hippocampus

Cingulate cortex → Cingulum

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → _______________ → _______________ → Perforant path → Hippocampus

Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → _______________ → _______________ → Hippocampus

Entorhinal cortex → Perforant path

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → _______________ → _______________

Perforant path → Hippocampus

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: _______________ → _______________ → _______________ → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → Perforant path → Hippocampus

Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → _______________ → _______________ → _______________ → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex → Perforant path → Hippocampus

Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → _______________ → _______________ → _______________ → Perforant path → Hippocampus

Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → Entorhinal cortex

The Papez circuit connects many structures of the limbic system. It is believed to be important for both memory and emotion. The following are the structures and tracts of the Papez circuit in sequential order: Hippocampus → Fornix → Mammillary bodies → Mammillothalamic tract → Anterior thalamic nuclei (ATN) → Internal Capsule → Cingulate cortex → Cingulum → _______________ → _______________ → _______________

Entorhinal cortex → Perforant path → Hippocampus

Two specific "set-point" theories of eating were presented in lecture. The __________ theory describes how the body aims to maintain set-point levels of body fat

Lipostatic

Two specific "set-point" theories of eating were presented in lecture. The __________ theory describes how the body aims to maintain set-point glucose levels

Glucostatic

Two specific "set-point" theories of eating were presented in lecture. - The lipostatic theory is that the body aims to maintain set-point levels of _______. - The glucostatic theory is that body aims to maintain set-point ________ levels These are both homeostatic theories that are used to explain how our body maintains stable _____ and ____ levels ________ is a means of restoring the set point and these mechanisms drive ___

body fat; glucose; glucose; fat; eating; hunger

Two specific "set-point" theories of eating were presented in lecture. The glucostatic theory focuses on __________ regulation of energy intake. It proposes that blood glucose levels are monitored, when blood glucose drops below a set point, it triggers hunger The lipostatic theory focuses on ______ regulation of energy intake. It proposes that body fat levels are monitored, when body fat drops below a set point, it triggers hunger Together, these theories suggest a comprehensive system for maintaining energy balance, with glucose levels providing ________ feedback and fat levels providing ______ regulation of food intake.

short-term; long-term; immediate; long-term

The _______ phase of insulin release occurs before food enters the stomach, triggered by sight, smell, or thought of food

cephalic

The ______ phase of insulin release occurs as nutrients are absorbed into the blood stream.

digestive

The __________ phase of insulin release occurs as nutrients are ________ into the bloodstream.

Absorption; absorbed

The phased release of insulin can affect when we eat. The ______ phase of insulin release prepares body for incoming food, potentially increasing appetite. Later phases lead to a drop in blood glucose, which may trigger hunger and further eating.

Cephalic

In you reading for Week 3, evidence from Latner and Stunkard's work demonstrates how obese people are stigmatised. Children were shown a series of pictures, they were asked who they would want to be friends with. Pictures of children with _____________ were marked highly, and ____________ children were ranked lowest. ________ children in the study showed the same bias.

no notable features; obese; obese

In you reading for Week 3, evidence from Latner and Stunkard's work demonstrates how obese people are stigmatised. Children were shown a series of pictures, they were asked who they would want to be friends with. Pictures of children with no notable features were marked ______, and obese children were ranked _____. Obese children in the study showed the same bias. When the study was repeated years later, the gap between highest ranked and lowest ranked ______. This showed societal bias is _______ over time.

highly; lowest; increased; increasing

Recall your reading "Your amazing brain", by George et al. (2024). Teenagers are often considered poor or risky decision makers. Recent studies show adolescents can be _________ decision-makers in appropriate tasks. In a 2022 study, teens outperformed both younger and older participants in a ________. Adolescents excel in tasks involving ______ or ______. Teenagers' tendency to explore ________ is considered evolutionarily adaptive. Brain reward centres in adolescents contribute to optimal learning in __________ situations. These points suggest that teenage decision-making may be uniquely adapted for navigating ________ environments as they transition to _______.

highly capable; strategic game; uncertainty or change; new options; uncertain; uncertain; independence

From your reading for Week 4, recall the experiments of Walter Kaye. Kaye investigated the _________ pathway of people with/without anorexia nervosa. In people with anorexia nervosa, brain _______ and _______ circuits activated more when offered sugar water after fasting. In people without anorexia nervosa, these same brain circuits showed _________ activation after fasting

risk-reward; reward; motivation; more; less

From your reading for Week 4, recall the experiments of Walter Kaye. People with anorexia could identify feeling hungry, but their brains didn't convert that into a desire to eat. Those with anorexia experienced heightened anxiety and inhibition, along with diminished _______ signalling in their brains when hungry. Kaye concluded that people with anorexia may ________________________ explaining their lack of drive to eat even when hungry.

reward; miscode food as risky rather than rewarding

______________ is the process of generating new neurons from neural stem cells. It primarily occurs in two regions of the adult brain: - The subventricular zone of the lateral ventricles - The subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus in the hippocampus

Neurogenesis

Neurogenesis is the process of generating new neurons from neural stem cells. It primarily occurs in two regions of the adult brain: - The ___________ zone of the lateral ventricles - The ___________ zone of the dentate gyrus in the hippocampus

subventricular; subgranular

Neurogenesis is the process of generating new neurons from neural stem cells. It primarily occurs in two regions of the adult brain: - The subventricular zone of the _________ ventricles - The subgranular zone of the __________ in the hippocampus

lateral; dentate gyrus

Neurogenesis is the process of generating new neurons from neural stem cells. It primarily occurs in two regions of the adult brain: - The subventricular zone of the lateral ________ - The subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus in the _________

ventricles; hippocampus

Neurogenesis in the hippocampus is thought to contribute to ________ and ________. Specifically, it may enhance ______________, the ability to distinguish between similar experiences or ________. This process is believed to be important for forming distinct __________ and avoiding confusion between _________.

learning and memory; pattern separation; memories; memories; similar events

_____________ in the _________ is thought to contribute to learning and memory. Specifically, it may enhance pattern separation, the ability to distinguish between similar experiences or memories. This process is believed to be important for forming distinct memories and avoiding confusion between similar events.

Neurogenesis; hippocampus

Describe three neuroimaging or neuroscience techniques that a professor could use to study cortical cell activity, manipulate neuronal firing, and measure human brain activity. Explain what each technique is best suited for.

- Two-photon microscopy to measure activity of individual cortical cells and visualize fine structures like dendrites. - Optogenetics to silence specific cells using light-sensitive proteins, allowing study of their role in behavior. - EEG (electroencephalography) to measure human brain activity with excellent temporal resolution but poor spatial resolution.

Explain the relationship between brain energy expenditure and the production of adenosine. How might this relate to mental fatigue?

Brain energy expenditure produces adenosine as a byproduct of cellular metabolism. Adenosine acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter. This may "apply the brakes" to neuronal activity, possibly contributing to mental fatigue.

Discuss the concept of brain entropy in relation to psychedelics and sleep. How does this concept relate to information processing in the brain?

Psychedelics can increase brain entropy, while sleep decreases it. Brain entropy refers to the complexity of signals and connections between different areas. Higher entropy may relate to increased information processing and storage capacity.

Describe two major dopaminergic pathways in the brain, including their origins, projections, and functions.

Mesolimbic pathway: - Origin: VTA (ventral tegmental area) - Projection: Nucleus accumbens - Function: Involved in generating 'incentive salience' Mesocortical pathway: - Origin: Same as mesolimbic (VTA) - Projection: Prefrontal cortex - Function: Involved in the generation of planned action

Describe two major dopaminergic pathways in the brain, including their origins, projections, and functions.

Explain the components of a typical hippocampal "field recording" after stimulation of cortical afferents. What does each component represent?

A typical hippocampal field recording contains: - Fiber volley: Measure of presynaptic potential - Field excitatory postsynaptic potential (fEPSP): Slope indicates synaptic strength - Population spike: Reflects postsynaptic action potential generation

Describe the mechanism of Long Term Potentiation (LTP) in the hippocampus, including the neurotransmitters and receptors involved.

- Triggered by glutamate binding to NMDA receptors - Requires simultaneous activation of AMPA receptors for cell depolarization - Results in Ca2+ influx into the postsynaptic cell

Discuss the case of Henry Molaison (H.M.) and what his condition revealed about different types of memory and the role of the hippocampus.

- Suffered memory deficits after bilateral medial temporal lobe surgery - Showed intact procedural memory (e.g., mirror drawing task) but impaired declarative memory - Revealed the role of hippocampus in forming new declarative memories

Explain the findings of Schulz et al. (1993) regarding dopamine neuron activity in trained monkeys. How did the timing of dopamine release change with learning?

- Initially, dopamine neurons spiked after reward presentation - After training, dopamine neurons spiked before reward presentation - This shift indicates learning of reward prediction

Describe the role of insulin in regulating hunger and satiety. Where is it produced and under what conditions does it elicit satiety?

- Produced in the pancreas - Elicits satiety when blood glucose is high (2 points) - Acts as a signal of energy availability (2 points)

Explain the function of ghrelin in appetite regulation. Where is it produced and what is its effect on hunger?

- Produced in the stomach - Considered a "hunger hormone" - Stimulates appetite and food intake

Discuss the role of leptin in weight regulation. How does it relate to the concept of "conservation mode" in dieting?

- Secreted by adipocytes (fat cells) - Signals body fat levels to the brain - Weight loss reduces leptin levels, enhancing hunger - May contribute to "conservation mode" in dieting, making weight loss difficult

Describe the hormone CCK, including its source and effects on appetite and digestion.

- Secreted by cells lining the small intestine - Elicits a state of satiety - Can cause nausea if released for prolonged periods

Explain the roles of NPY and POMC neurons in the arcuate nucleus in regulating hunger and satiety. How do they interact with other brain regions?

- NPY neurons promote hunger by activating orexigenic cells in lateral hypothalamus - NPY neurons inhibit anorexigenic cells in paraventricular nucleus - POMC neurons have opposite effects, promoting satiety

Discuss the findings of Plagemann et al. (2010) and Huypens et al. (2016) regarding the effects of diet on offspring metabolism. What biological mechanism do these studies demonstrate?

- Plagemann et al. (2010): Overfeeding early in life led to methylation of the IRP gene, correlating with metabolic syndrome phenotypes later - Huypens et al. (2016): High-fat diet in parents produced offspring with metabolic syndrome phenotypes

Describe white matter plasticity, including the cellular processes involved and its effects on neural signaling.

- Involves thickening and tightening of myelin sheath around CNS axons - Mediated by oligodendrocytes (glial cells) - Activity-dependent process that speeds up action potential conduction

Discuss the findings of Titos et al. (2023) and Brandão et al. (2023) regarding the effects of diet on sleep. What specific dietary factors were found to influence sleep quality?

- Titos et al. (2023): High saturated fat diet correlated with less sensory responsiveness during sleep, due to altered dopamine signaling - Brandão et al. (2023): High glucose diet correlated with poorer sleep quality in humans

Explain Karl Lashley's principles of equipotentiality and mass action in relation to memory storage in the brain.

- Equipotentiality: All cortical areas are equally capable of storing memory - Mass action: The cortex works as a whole to produce outcomes like memory

Describe Lori Zelster's (2016) study on anorexia nervosa in mice. What factors were found to interact with genetic predisposition to alter feeding behavior?

- Used mice with a gene variant associated with anorexia nervosa in humans - Gene variant alone did not alter feeding behavior - Introduced calorie restriction and stress via social isolation - Combination of factors led to cessation of feeding in mice with gene variant

Discuss the potential and challenges of using CB1 receptor antagonists as a treatment for obesity. What side effects have been observed?

- Could potentially reduce feeding by blocking cannabinoid effects on hunger-related neurons - Proved disastrous in practice due to severe side effects - Side effects include depression

Compare the effectiveness of deep brain stimulation (DBS) targeting the hypothalamus versus the dopaminergic reward system for treating obesity.

- DBS targeting hypothalamic nuclei has shown mixed results in treating obesity. - The hypothalamus is a primary target due to its role in regulating hunger and satiety. - The dopaminergic approach addresses reward-driven aspects of overeating, which may be more effective for some forms of obesity.

Explain the dual process theory of creativity, including the two main phases and the brain networks involved in each.

- Concept formulation: Uses existing knowledge for inspiration, associated with default mode network - Concept evaluation: Critiques ideas for suitability, associated with executive network

NMDA receptors are ‘coincidence detectors’. Explain this statement, using the role of the NMDA receptor in LTP induction as an illustrative example. (Max 5 points. Partial marks possible)

- NMDA receptors require 2 things for their channels to open: glutamate must be bound (1) and the cell must be somewhat depolarised (1) - Depolarisation occurs via the activation of local AMPA receptors (1) - In LTP experiments, high-frequency stimulation is required to activate a sufficient number of AMPA receptors so that NMDA receptors can also be activated (1) - NMDA receptors are the trigger for LTP induction (1) - In this way, NMDA receptors are ‘coincidence detectors’ as they are only active (and thus LTP is only induced) when there is coincident high-frequency activity of pre- and postsynaptic neurons (1)

Recall your reading “How the Overweight are Stigmatised”, by Toomath. Briefly (one sentence each) describe five examples of how obesity can contribute to or drive poverty. (Max 5 points. Partial marks possible)

Increased income spent on healthcare/medicines/prescriptions - Loss of work/income due to ill health - Lower probability of being in employment due to prejudice - Lower wages due to prejudice - Higher insurance costs due to ill health/risk factors - Rising costs of travel (e.g. airline tickets) - Unemployment/premature death denying families from a wage-earner’s income - Lower employment = obese people pay less tax and collect more unemployment and sickness benefits, so an economic burden on societies - Loss of productivity through missing work = economic cost on societies - Increased amount of health budget devoted to obesity/metabolic related issues means less health funding elsewhere and thus knock-on effects on society

McLean’s “Triune Brain” model was presented in Week 1. Briefly describe this model with reference to specific structures and their purported functions. Then present two arguments against the model. (Max 5 points. Partial marks possible)

- Three waves of brain evolution: Reptilian/lizard brain (mainly brainstem and midbrain) first – seen in all vertebrates (1), paleomammalian (limbic system) second – seen in lower mammals (1), neomammalian (cortex) third – only seen in higher order mammals (1) - Reptilian = essential functions such as movement, autonomic control (1), limbic = emotion and motivated behaviours (1), cortex = higher cognitive function (1) - Argument 1: cortex present in lower mammals also. Less developed, but present. (1) - Argument 2: all these structures co-evolved – still get development of subcortical structures in tandem with cortex in higher mammals. E.g. dopaminergic projections from midbrain to cortex. (1)

__________ receptors require 2 things for their channels to open: glutamate must be bound and the cell must be somewhat depolarised Depolarisation occurs via the activation of local ______ receptors

NMDA; AMPA

NMDA receptors require 2 things for their channels to open: glutamate must be bound and the cell must be somewhat __________ ___________ occurs via the activation of local AMPA receptors

depolarised; Depolarisation

NMDA receptors require 2 things for their channels to open: _________ must be bound and the cell must be somewhat depolarised Depolarisation occurs via the activation of local AMPA receptors

glutamate

In ______ experiments, high-frequency stimulation is required to activate a sufficient number of AMPA receptors so that NMDA receptors can also be activated NMDA receptors are the trigger for _____ induction In this way, NMDA receptors are ‘coincidence detectors’ as they are only active (and thus _____ is only induced) when there is coincident high-frequency activity of pre- and postsynaptic neurons

LTP; LTP; LTP

In LTP experiments, __________________ is required to activate a sufficient number of AMPA receptors so that NMDA receptors can also be activated NMDA receptors are the trigger for LTP induction In this way, NMDA receptors are ‘_______________’ as they are only active (and thus LTP is only induced) when there is _______________ activity of pre- and postsynaptic neurons

high-frequency stimulation; coincidence detectors; coincident high-frequency

In LTP experiments, high-frequency stimulation is required to activate a sufficient number of _____ receptors so that _____ receptors can also be activated _____ receptors are the trigger for LTP induction In this way, _____ receptors are ‘coincidence detectors’ as they are only active (and thus LTP is only induced) when there is coincident high-frequency activity of pre- and postsynaptic neurons

AMPA; NMDA; NMDA; NMDA

McLean’s “Triune Brain” model was presented in Week 1. The model describes three waves of brain evolution: _____________ (mainly brainstem and midbrain) first – seen in all vertebrates, ____________ (limbic system) second – seen in lower mammals, ___________ (cortex) third – only seen in higher order mammals

Reptilian/lizard brain; paleomammalian; neomammalian

McLean’s “Triune Brain” model was presented in Week 1. The model describes three waves of brain evolution: Reptilian/lizard brain (mainly ________ and ________) first – seen in all vertebrates, paleomammalian (__________) second – seen in lower mammals, neomammalian (________) third – only seen in higher order mammals

brainstem; midbrain; limbic system; cortex

McLean’s “Triune Brain” model was presented in Week 1. The model describes three waves of brain evolution: Reptilian/lizard brain (mainly brainstem and midbrain) first – seen in ____________, paleomammalian (limbic system) second – seen in ___________, neomammalian (cortex) third – only seen in ___________

all vertebrates; lower mammals; higher order mammals

McLean’s “Triune Brain” model was presented in Week 1. _______ = essential functions such as movement, autonomic control, ________ = emotion and motivated behaviours, _________ = higher cognitive function

Reptilian/lizard brain; paleomammalian/limbic; neomammalian/cortex

McLean’s “Triune Brain” model was presented in Week 1. Reptilian = __________ functions such as ________, _________, limbic = _________ and __________ behaviours, cortex = _______________ function

essential; movement; autonomic control; emotion; motivated; higher cognitive

McLean’s “Triune Brain” model was presented in Week 1. There are two arguments against the model. Argument 1: _________ present in _______ mammals also. Less developed, but present. (1) Argument 2: all these structures ________ – still get development of __________ structures in tandem with ________ in higher mammals. E.g. dopaminergic projections from ________ to _______. (1)

cortex; lower; co-evolved; subcortical; cortex; midbrain; cortex

McLean’s “Triune Brain” model was presented in Week 1. Briefly describe this model with reference to specific structures and their purported functions.

McLean’s “Triune Brain” model was presented in Week 1. Present two arguments against the model.

- Argument 1: cortex present in lower mammals also. Less developed, but present. (1) - Argument 2: all these structures co-evolved – still get development of subcortical structures in tandem with cortex in higher mammals. E.g. dopaminergic projections from midbrain to cortex. (1)

Test 1 Flashcards

(179 cards)