test 1

Question 1

benefits of microorganisms:

microorganisms are ? organisms that require a ? to be seen

average size of microbes is ? micrometer

Answer 1

nitrogen fixation, gut health, nutrient recycling, decomposition, antibiotic production, vaccine development, fermentation, gene therapy (genetic engineering)
living, microscope
1

Question 2

?, such as bacteria and archaea, are generally smaller (0.1–5 µm) and ? a membrane-bound nucleus, with their genetic material located in a nucleoid region. They also lack most membrane-bound ?. Prokaryotic DNA is typically circular and exists as a single chromosome. they are also ?-celled.

Answer 2

prokaryotes, lack, organelles, single

Question 3

?, such as fungi and protists, are larger (10-100 μm) & have a ?-? nucleus containing their DNA, and various other membrane-bound organelles within its cytoplasm. these cells also have DNA & ?. they are also ?-cellular and single-celled.

Answer 3

eukaryotes, membrane-bound, RNA, multi

Question 4

how do you correctly write a scientific name?

Answer 4

if typing use italics; if handwriting underline

Question 5

name some common tools used in gene therapy:

Answer 5

PCR, CRISPR, viral vectors

Question 6

what kind of microbes would you expect to find in a human GI tract?

Answer 6

E. coli, lactobacillus, clostridium

Question 7

difference between antiviral and antibiotic:

fun fact: Antibiotics do not work on viruses, which is why they aren’t used for viral infections like the flu or colds.

Answer 7

Antivirals target viruses by blocking viral entry, replication, or release. They do not kill the virus directly but slow its spread.

Antibiotics target bacteria, either by killing them or inhibiting their growth. They work by disrupting bacterial cell walls, protein synthesis, or DNA replication.

Question 8

who invented the first microscope?

Answer 8

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

Question 9

what did robert hooke see in his microscope?
what is he credited with naming?

Answer 9

nematodes, mites, and mold filaments, cells

Question 10

why was there a long period of time between the invention of the microscope and the use of it in the medical field?

Answer 10

it was due to poor quality of early microscope lenses causing significant image distortion and color aberrations, making it difficult to identify and observe microbes, also combined with a lack of understanding of the behaviors of certain microbes.

Question 11

John Tyndall (an Irish scientist) stated that repeated cycles of ? are needed to ? material and eliminate ?.

Answer 11

heat, sterilize, endospores

Question 12

The ?-? experiment simulated early Earth conditions by combining ?, methane, ?, and water vapor, then applying an electrical discharge to mimic lightning. This resulted in the formation of organic compounds, including amino acids, suggesting that life’s building blocks could form ? under those conditions.

Answer 12

Miller-Urey, hydrogen, ammonia, abiotically

Question 13

what was the first vaccine designed to prevent?

Answer 13

smallpox

Question 14

what does attenuated mean? a ? form of a ? used in vaccines to provoke ?

Answer 14

weakened, pathogen, immunity

Question 15

what’s the largest source of natural source of antibiotics we have?

Answer 15

Actinomycetes

Question 16

A ? is an organism that gains energy by ? inorganic compounds instead of organic matter.

Answer 16

lithotroph, oxidizing

Question 17

benefits of the bubonic plague:

Answer 17

higher wages, vaccines, epidemiology, understanding of disease transmission, public health and hygiene

Question 18

the purpose of ? culture is to significantly increase the # of the target microorganism by ? it and cultivating the proper environment for it to flourish, therefore ? the number & production of that target microorganism and making it easier to ?, ? and isolate.

Answer 18

enrichment, isolating, increasing, identify, study

Question 19

The ? ? states that eukaryotic (plant/animal cells) cells engulfed prokaryotic cells and, instead of digesting them, they formed a ? relationship. Over time, the engulfed prokaryotes evolved into ? (in animal and plant cells) and chloroplasts (in plant cells), both of which have their own DNA and perform essential functions like energy production and photosynthesis.

Answer 19

endosymbiotic theory, mutualistic, mitochondria

Question 20

the X-ray crystallography pattern of DNA was obtained by ? ?; it is known as the photo ?; this picture shows the double ? structure of DNA

Answer 20

Rosalind Franklin, 51, helical

Question 21

The first cellular genome is sequenced: Haemophilus influenzae, a ?.

Answer 21

bacteria

Question 22

In 2000, on a farm in
North Dakota, 67-year-old
Caleb helped bury 5 cows
that had died of ?.

Wearing heavy leather gloves, Caleb placed chains around the heads and hooves of the carcasses and moved them to the burial site. Four days later, he noticed a small lump on his left cheek. Over two days, the lump enlarged and a lesion opened.
Caleb sought medical attention. The physician reported a firm, superficial nodule surrounded by a purple ring, with an overlying black ? (piece of dead tissue sloughed from the skin).

The physician prescribed
?, the
standard antibiotic for
? anthrax.

Answer 22

anthrax, eschar, ciprofloxacin, cutaneous

Question 23

name the 3 types of symbiotic relationships:

Answer 23

mutualism (both benefit), commensalism (one benefits while other is unaffected), parasitism (one benefits while other is harmed)

Question 24

a sign is anything that can be ? or ?
a symptom is anything that can be ? or ?

Answer 24

measured or observed (seen)
felt or reported (felt)

Question 25

what is an LD50 test?

Answer 25

a test that measures the exact amount of a substance that can be given to cause death in 50% of the test population

Question 26

A ? is an organism that ? pathogens from one host to another.

Answer 26

vector, transmits

Question 27

endemic is a disease that... epidemic is a disease that...

Answer 27

Endemic: A disease that is consistently present in a specific area or population (e.g., malaria in parts of Africa). Epidemic: A disease that spreads rapidly and affects many people in a short time (e.g., flu outbreak in a city).

Question 28

Invasive disease: A disease caused by pathogens that ? and ? throughout the body, often affecting internal tissues (e.g., bacterial pneumonia). ? disease: A disease that is new or increasing in frequency in a population (e.g., COVID-19). ? disease: comes back after a while.

Answer 28

enter, spread, emerging, reemerging

Question 29

say you have an epidemic, what is one/a few factor that can turn that epidemic into a pandemic?

Answer 29

Increased human mobility (e.g., air travel) Mutations in the pathogen making it easily transmissible. Lack of immunity allowing the disease to spread unchecked. Inadequate public health response Close contact in crowded areas Climate change Deforestation and habitat destruction: Can bring humans into closer contact with animals that may harbor new diseases. Antibiotic resistance Cultural or societal behaviors: Practices like mass gatherings or lack of sanitation could amplify transmission. Asymptomatic carriers: People who don’t show symptoms but still spread the disease, making it harder to control. Inconsistent reporting: Delayed or inaccurate reporting can hinder timely responses and containment efforts.

Question 30

STOP THE SPREAD: Urogenital (e.g., sexually transmitted infections): use ?, get regular ?, ? or mutual monogamy Parenteral (e.g., bloodborne diseases): safe handling and ? of needles, ? needles, blood screening and ? testing. Oral (e.g., foodborne or waterborne diseases) proper ? hygiene and food safety, safe water and ? Mosquito Vector (e.g., malaria, dengue) mosquito ?, and protective clothing, Eliminate mosquito breeding sites (standing water), and ?

Answer 30

condoms, screenings, abstinence, disposing, sterile, donor, hand, sanitation, repellant, vaccination

Question 31

The most common portal of entry for pathogens in the human body is the ? ?.

Answer 31

respiratory tract

Question 32

Biosafety level ? organisms have little to no ? potential and require the ? level of containment. Standard sterile techniques and laboratory practices are sufficient.

Answer 32

1, pathogenic, lowest

Question 33

Biosafety level ? agents have greater pathogenic potential, but ? and/or therapeutic treatments (for example, antibiotics) are readily available. this levels agents require somewhat rigorous ? procedures, such as limiting laboratory access when experiments are in progress.

Answer 33

2, vaccines, containment

Question 34

Biosafety level ? pathogens produce a serious or ? human disease, but vaccines or therapeutic agents may be available. these room use ? pressure to ensure that ventilation air only flows into the room and exhaust air vents directly to the outside.agents may cause disease by ?.

Answer 34

3, lethal, negative, inhalation

Question 35

Biosafety level ? examines highly dangerous and exotic pathogens with high risk of ? transmission. in this level full-body ?-pressure suits are used and the lab is completely isolated.

Answer 35

4, aerosol, positive

Question 36

what are the risk factors working as a healthcare worker in the hospital?

Answer 36

Direct patient contact Bloodborne pathogens Needle stick injuries Respiratory exposure Inadequate personal protective equipment (PPE) Hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) Physical and mental stress Improper hand hygiene

Question 37

? host range: A pathogen that can infect a variety of different species. ? host range: A pathogen that infects only specific species or sometimes a specific tissue within a host.

Answer 37

broad, narrow

Question 38

As global warming progresses, warmer temperatures allow disease ? to thrive in new areas, spreading illnesses like malaria and dengue. Longer warm seasons can extend the time during which diseases are transmitted, such as flu or waterborne infections. Additionally, extreme weather events like floods and hurricanes can ? water supplies and ? the spread of diseases like cholera. Increased heat and humidity also create favorable conditions for ? and fungi to grow, leading to higher rates of infections like fungal diseases and gastrointestinal illnesses. As ecosystems shift due to climate change, animals and pathogens may come into closer ? with humans, raising the risk of zoonotic diseases like Zika virus or Ebola.

Answer 38

vectors, contaminate, increase, bacteria, contact

Question 39

? ? is the process by which a pathogen is passed from a mother to her fetus through the placenta

Answer 39

transplacental transmission

Question 40

In 1884, Yong Ding was a 38-year-old male who worked as a cook in Canton, located in southern China. Life was hard, but he still managed to support his family. As he walked to his restaurant each day, he barely noticed the small bands of rats scurrying through the streets. Disease was rampant that year; victims of the Shuyi (rat epidemic) were stacked like firewood in the streets, five bodies high in places, waiting to be taken for burial. Yong Ding knew that the disease started as a ? gland in the armpit (?) that often had a ? appearance (now called a ?). He checked himself daily for these swellings and, seeing none, always felt relief. Then, one morning, he found one. Within days, Yong Ding began coughing ? as the agent (a mystery at the time) spread though his bloodstream to his ?. Once that happened, he knew death was not far behind. Within weeks, more than 60,000 people died this way in Canton—victims of what would be called the Third Pandemic of bubonic plague. Yong Ding’s body was one of many lining the streets that year.

Answer 40

swollen, axillary, black, bubo, blood, lungs

Question 41

parts of compound microscope: condenser: ? light to improve image ? diaphragm: controls ? of light passing thru parfocal occurs when the microscope stays in ? when ? ? total magnification = mag of ? times mag of ? ? depth of field refers to the ? of the area in focus wet mount is used to view ? microbes by using ? to keep it hydrated while studying the specimen

Answer 41

focuses, clarity, amount, focus, switching lenses eyepiece, objective lens thickness living, water

Question 42

PATHWAY OF LIGHT THRU MICROSCOPE: light can shine on brilliant eyes

Answer 42

light source -> condenser -> specimen -> objective lens -> body tube -> eyepiece -> eye

Question 43

total mag =

Answer 43

current magnification time 10x

Question 44

?-field – Standard, uses light for bright backgrounds and stained specimens. ?-field – Special lighting, dark background, great for unstained, living specimens. Electron (SEM & TEM) – High magnification, ? for surfaces, ? for internal structures. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) – ? images of surfaces. Phase-contrast – Enhances ? details of transparent, living cells. Fluorescence – ? specific structures using fluorescent light. ? – Uses X-rays for imaging ? or thick specimens like bones.

Answer 44

baright, dark, SEM, TEM, 3D, internal, highlights, X-ray, dense

Question 45

??? invented the gram stain

Answer 45

Hans Christian Gram

Question 46

The purpose of the Gram stain is to classify ? into two groups, Gram-positive and Gram-negative, based on the structure of their cell ?. This helps in identifying bacterial species and guiding the choice of ? for treatment. The stain uses crystal ? dye, iodine, alcohol, and ? to differentiate bacteria based on their cell wall's ability to ? the dye.

Answer 46

bacteria, walls, antibiotics, violet, safranin, retain

Question 47

Gram-? bacteria are characterized by a ? peptidoglycan layer in their cell wall, which allows them to ? the crystal violet stain during the Gram staining process, making them appear purple under a microscope. they lack an outer ? membrane which makes their cell walls more rigid and vulnerable to certain ? that target cell wall synthesis. These structural features contribute to their overall susceptibility to different antimicrobial treatments.

Answer 47

positive, thick, retain, lipid, antibiotics

Question 48

Gram-negative bacteria have a ? peptidoglycan layer in their cell wall, which (does/does not retain) the crystal violet stain during the Gram staining process. As a result, they appear ? or ? under the microscope after the procedure. They ? an outer lipid membrane, which makes them more resistant to certain antibiotics, as the membrane acts as a ? to drug penetration. The outer membrane also contains lipopolysaccharides, which contribute to the bacteria's ability to cause inflammation and can serve as endotoxins. These structural differences make Gram-negative bacteria more resilient to some environmental factors and antibiotics compared to Gram-positive bacteria.

Answer 48

thin, does not retain, pink, red, possess, barrier

Question 49

The chemicals used in the Gram staining procedure are: ? ?: A primary stain that stains all bacterial cells purple. ?: A mordant that forms a complex with crystal violet, helping it bind more tightly to the bacterial cell walls. Alcohol (or Acetone/?): The decolorizer, which washes away the crystal violet-iodine complex from Gram-negative bacteria due to their thin peptidoglycan layer, while Gram-positive bacteria retain the dye. ?: A counterstain that stains the decolorized Gram-negative bacteria pink or red, allowing them to be visible under the microscope.

Answer 49

crystal violet, iodine, ethanol, safranin

Question 50

A Congo red stain is primarily used in pathology to identify the presence of ? deposits in ? samples

Answer 50

amyloid, tissue

Question 51

Malachite green stain is primarily used in microbiology to specifically identify and visualize ? ? within a sample

Answer 51

bacterial endospores

Question 52

? blue stain is primarily used in microbiology to color and highlight specific structures within cells, like nuclei and bacteria, allowing researchers to easily observe their shapes, locations, and morphology

Answer 52

Methylene

Question 53

A ? field microscope is used to view unstained specimens with high contrast

Answer 53

dark

Question 54

Jared was a 48-year-old healthy man who ran a business servicing whirlpool baths and hot tub spas in Columbus, Ohio. He began to experience ? (shortness of breath) and watery diarrhea. Jared's symptoms increased, including a dry cough, ? (muscle pain), nausea, and vomiting. After 6 days, he was admitted to a hospital in Columbus. The clinician noticed that Jared appeared flushed and had diy mucous membranes. His temperature was 39°C (102.2°F), and his pulse rate was 103 beats per minute. Chest radiographs showed ? with consolidation (formation of a firm mass) of the left lower lobe. His C-reactive protein (CRP, a blood protein produced by the liver) was greater than 220 milligrams per liter (mg/l), a high level that indicates inflammation. Before onset of symptoms, Jared recalled having cleaned the filter of a hot tub spa at an elite downtown Columbus hotel. The water in hot tubs is filtered and sanitized by chlorination, but it can become contaminated by Gram-negative pathogens. Culture from Jared's sputum and from the spa filter revealed Gram-? bacilli consistent with Legionella pneumophila. The diagnosis was confirmed by ? microscopy using direct fluorescent antibody (DFA) stain. The patient received intravenous amoxicillin and clarithromycin antibiotics for 8 days before his condition returned to normal.

Answer 54

dyspnea, mialgia, pneumonia, negative, fluorescence

Question 55

A ? covalent bond occurs when electrons are shared equally between atoms with similar electronegativity, while a polar covalent bond happens when electrons are shared ? between atoms with different electronegativities

Answer 55

nonpolar, unequally

Question 56

Hydrophilic means "water-?" and hydrophobic means "water-?". Hydrophilic substances ? water, while hydrophobic substances ? water.

Answer 56

loving, fearing, absorb, repel

Question 57

In cells, lipids primarily function as building blocks for cell ?, acting as a barrier to control what ? and exits the cell, while also serving as ? storage molecules

Answer 57

membranes, enters, energy

Question 58

C₃H₈O₃: this is the molecular structure of ?

Answer 58

glycerol

Question 59

C₆H₁₂O₆: this is the molecular structure of ?

Answer 59

glucose

Question 60

The building blocks of a polysaccharide are ?; meaning a polysaccharide is made up of many simple sugars

Answer 60

monosaccharides

Question 61

? ? replicates new DNA strands by adding nucleotides to a DNA template during PCR, effectively amplifying the target DNA.

Answer 61

Taq polymerase

Question 62

Primary: ? of amino acids in a polypeptide chain. Secondary: Local ? into α-helices and β-pleated sheets. Tertiary: Overall ? shape formed by side chain interactions. Quaternary: Multiple polypeptide chains assemble into a functional protein ?.

Answer 62

sequence, folding, 3D, complex

Question 63

When ATP is hydrolyzed to AMP, the free energy change (ΔG) is ? bc it's an ? reaction.

Answer 63

negative, exergonic

Question 64

A double ? reaction occurs when two ? compounds exchange their ions to form two new compounds. The reaction typically takes place in ? solution, resulting in the formation of a precipitate, gas, or water.

Answer 64

replacement, ionic, aqueous

Question 65

First Law: Energy cannot be ? or ?, only converted from one form to another. Second Law: The ? (disorder) of an isolated system always ? over time. Third Law: As temperature approaches absolute zero, the entropy of a system approaches a ? value.

Answer 65

created, destroyed, entropy, increases, minimum

Question 66

Entropy is a measure of ? or ? in a system; the higher the entropy, the greater the disorder.

Answer 66

disorder, randomness

Question 67

ways a cell can increase the rate of reaction Increasing ? Using ? Increasing ? of reactants Providing cofactors or coenzymes

Answer 67

temperature, enzymes, concentration

Question 68

The energy of activation (activation energy) is the ? amount of energy required for a ? reaction to occur. A higher activation energy means the reaction will proceed more ?, while a lower activation energy ? the reaction rate.

Answer 68

minimum, chemical, slowly, increases

Question 69

The Brønsted-Lowry definition of a weak acid is a substance that ? donates protons (H⁺) to ? or another base in solution, meaning it does not fully ? in water.

Answer 69

partially, water, dissolve

Question 70

can a weak acid can cross a cell membrane?, if so, in what form?

Answer 70

yes, typically in its non-ionized form

Question 71

what kind of molecules can cross phospholipid bilayer Small ? molecules: Oxygen (O₂), Carbon dioxide (CO₂) Small ?polar molecules: Water (H₂O), Glycerol ?-soluble molecules: Steroids, Fatty acids, Cholesterol

Answer 71

non-polar, uncharged, lipid

Question 72

Hypertonic: A solution with a ? concentration of solutes compared to the cell, causing the cell to lose water and ?. Hypotonic: A solution with a ? concentration of solutes compared to the cell, causing the cell to take in water and ?. Isotonic: A solution with the ? concentration of solutes as the cell, resulting in no net water movement, and the cell ? its shape.

Answer 72

higher, shrink, lower, swell, same, maintains

Question 73

an ? is a membrane-bound vesicle formed during endocytosis a phagosome is a special type of vesicle formed during ?

Answer 73

endosome, phagocytosis

Question 74

?: The process by which cells take in substances from outside by engulfing them in a vesicle.

Answer 74

endocytosis

Question 75

Exocytosis: The process by which cells ? substances by ? fusing with the cell membrane, releasing their contents ? the cell.

Answer 75

expel, vesicles, outside

Question 76

The primary source of antibiotics is ?.

Answer 76

actinomyces

Question 77

? was the first cellular microbe sequenced

Answer 77

bacteria

Question 78

In October 2013, Kelsey was a 28-year-old computer programmer who worked for a prominent technology firm in Silicon Valley. In the middle of the night, Kelsey awoke with abdominal cramps and diarrhea. Her temperature spiked as high as 40°C (104°F). She had a bad headache and could not retain sufficient fluids. After 3 days, her fever subsided, but the diarrhea continued (about 20 times a day) and began showing blood. Kelsey was admitted to the hospital, where she was given intravenous fluids to control her dehydration. The physician asked her about her dietary history preceding the onset of symptoms. Kelsey recalled that, the night before onset, she had eaten rotisserie chicken cooked at the supermarket. An antibody test confirmed the diagnosis of ? enterica serovar Heidelberg. Because of the severity of her symptoms, Kelsey was treated with antibiotics, although sometimes antibiotics may prolong the persistence of Salmonella. When amoxicillin failed to control the infection because of ? resistance, ? was used. Ultimately, Kelsey's illness was one of more than 400 cases in 23 states traced to contaminated chicken from one California farm. Kelsey recovered, but 3 months later, S. Heidelberg could still be detected in her feces.

Answer 78

Salmonella, bacterial, ciprofloxacin

Question 79

cholera toxin signaling pathway: "Big Elephants Always Grab Apples Constantly." B: ?- Toxin binds to GM1 ganglioside receptor. E: ?- Toxin enters the cell via endocytosis and travels to the ER. A: ? ? release - The A1 subunit is released into the cytoplasm. G: ? ? modification - A1 modifies the G protein. A: ? ? activation - G protein activates adenylate cyclase to produce cAMP. C: Chloride ? - cAMP activates ion channels, leading to chloride and water loss.

Answer 79

binding, endocytosis, A1 Subunit, G protein, Adenylate cyclase, efflux