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Psychology Sex Differences > Test 1 (Chapters 2-5) > Flashcards

Test 1 (Chapters 2-5) Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the four levels of natural selection and evolution?

A

Ultimate, Proximate, Physiological, Development

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2
Q

Define the Ultimate level in natural selection and evolution

A

Selection pressures that drove trait evolution (e.g., large horns, reproduction)

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3
Q

Define the Proximate level in natural selection and evolution

A

The here-and-now function (e.g., fighting for males)

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4
Q

Define the Physiological level in natural selection and evolution

A

Underlying processes (e.g., testosterone)

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5
Q

Define the Development level in natural selection and evolution

A

Traits

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6
Q

Microevolution

A

Changes within species

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7
Q

Macroevolution

A

Emergence of new species

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8
Q

What evolutions does natural selection have?

A

Microevolution, macroevolution

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9
Q

What are the different types of the selection pressures?

A

Climatic, Ecological, Social

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10
Q

Define Climatic selection pressure

A

Adaptations to harsh and variable weather patterns (e.g., body size)

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11
Q

Define Ecological selection pressure

A

Adaptations that enable prey capture and predator avoidance (ex. camouflage)

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12
Q

Define Social selection pressure

A

Competition with members of one’s own species (conspecifics) over resource control and social dynamics

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13
Q

What are the benefits of sexual reproduction?

A

Elimination of Mutations, Ecological adaptation, Parasite resistance

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14
Q

Elimination of Mutations benefit

A

–Mutations accumulate more rapidly with asexual reproduction
–Photocopy of a copy of a copy of a copy… (gets worse after each copy)
–Muller’s ratchet
–Accumulating mutations can compromise health and eventually the ability to reproduce

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15
Q

Muller’s Ratchet

A

Mutations added up over generations with no way to remove them

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16
Q

Ecological adaptation benefit

A

–Sexual reproduction results in trait variability–individual differences
–Allows for greater specialization and reduced competition among offspring (ex. individual differences in human personality)
–The variability provides “insurance” against rapidly changing ecologies or selection pressures. Variability in offspring increases the chances that at least some of them will survive

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17
Q

Parasite resistance benefit

A

–Host-parasite coevolution as the primary selection pressure for the evolution of sexual reproduction
–Nearly all organisms are exposed to parasites (~16) that compromise health
–The costs result in a selection pressure for defenses against parasites, such as the immune system or skin
–Parasites can quickly adapt due to shorter life spans
–Selection pressures for an immune system that’s highly variable and thus more difficult for parasites to adapt to

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18
Q

Red Queen Phenomenon

A

Increased variability in immune system through sexual reproduction to make it difficult for parasites to adapt

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19
Q

Primary selection pressure for the evolution of sexual reproduction

A

Parasite resistance

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20
Q

Anisogamy

A

Form of sexual reproduction that involves the union of two gametes, or DNA carrying cells (mainly sperm and egg)

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21
Q

What is the cost-benefit trade-offs for a smaller sized gamete?

A

More opportunities to fuse with another gamete

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22
Q

What is the cost-benefit trade-offs for a larger sized gamete?

A

More nutrients and higher chances of survival

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23
Q

What does trade-off result in?

A

Disruptive selection

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24
Q

What problem did the evolution of sex create?

A

–Finding and competing for a mate or mates
–All mates aren’t equal–sexual reproduction creates variability

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25
Processes of Sexual Selection
Intersexual choice and Intrasexual choice
26
Intersexual Choice
Discriminating choice of mating partners
27
Intrasexual Choice
Competing with members of the same sex for access to mates or to attract mates
28
Parenting
Resources devoted to developing gametes, prenatal development, post-natal protection, and provisioning
29
Reproductive Effort
Mating and Parenting
30
Mating
Resources devoted to competing for access to mates or attracting mates
31
Reproductive Rate
Biological limit on how quickly an individual can produce offspring
32
Operational Sex Ratio
The ratio of sexual active males to females at one point in time and in one locale
33
Female Choice
--The benefit of parental investment --Drives the evolution of traits that females prefer in mates
34
What do traits tell females about males?
Good taste and good genes
35
Good Taste
Males look good for no particular reason
36
Good Genes
Attractive males are healthier, better providers (when they help in parenting), or provide better genes to offspring
37
Zahavi's Handicap Principle
The expression of secondary sexual characteristics is costly especially to unhealthy males
38
Male-Male competition can involve:
--Physical traits --Behavioral traits --Brain and cognitive traits
39
Sneaking Males
--Alternative mating strategy --Smaller males that sneak into harems to attempt to mate with females
40
Reproductive Skew
Competition and choice result in variation in reproductive success
41
Social Selection
Competition for resources other than mates. Appears to result in trait elaboration in the same way as sexual selection
42
Life History
The study of the selection pressures that have modified the species' developmental and reproductive patterns (e.g., age of first reproduction)
43
Somatic Effort
Maintenance, growth, and the accumulation of reproductive potential
44
Reproductive Effort
The expenditure of reproductive potential in adulthood
45
Reproductive Potential
Traits that will influence competition, choice, and parenting
46
Ecological and Social Conditions
Rate of Development, Age of First Reproduction, Quantity of Offspring, Quality of Offspring, Life Span
47
Competitive Individuals within social competition for access to survival- and reproduction-related resources
--High levels of parental investment --Smaller number of competitive offspring --Social-Developmental activities (play)
48
Physical male-male competition within life history
--Slower growth (e.g., 3 vs 8 year in elephant seal) --Growth spurt before maturation --Shorter life span (varies with parental investment)
49
Female choice in life history
Slower growth, costly development of sexually selected traits
50
Phenotypic Plasticity
Potential to modify survival- and reproduction-related traits in response to ecological and social conditions, but within genetically-based constraints
51
Play Definition
Voluntary behavior that includes components of evolved adult behaviors
52
Play behavior factors
--Common with slow pace of life --Either practice of these behaviors or maintains them --Building up of reproductive potential
53
Types of Play
Locomotor play, Object play, Social play
54
Locomotor Play
Typically prey capture or predator evasion behaviors
55
Object Play
Common in species that have to manipulate prey, other foods, or that use tools
56
Social play
The norm in mammals
57
Social play types
Rough-and-tumble and play parenting
58
Rough-and-tumble
AKA play fighting, common in the sex that fights more in adulthood
59
Play parenting
More common in the sex that parent more
60
Why is parenting critical?
Keeping the offspring alive
61
Paternal Investment Trade-Offs
--Offspring survival and quality --Mating opportunities --Paternity certainty
62
Obligate Paternal Investment
Male investment is necessary for offspring survival
63
Facultative Paternal Investment
Male investment increases survival prospects of offspring quality, but isn't absolutely necessary
64
Cuckoldry
Investing in another males' offspring; rare when male investment is obligate; varies with male quality when investment is facultative
65
Hormones
--Among the basic physiological mechanisms that result in primary (gonads) and secondary sex differences --Central to many aspects of competition, choice, and parenting
66
The Challenge Hypothesis
--With seasonal breeders, testosterone remains low until competition for breeding sites and mates --Year-long breeders, testosterone remains at moderate levels unless challenged by another male --Winners of male-male competition increases in testosterone, losers decrease
67
Handicap Principle
Males can't cheat because unhealthy ones can't compete or develop attractive traits
68
Condition-dependent sexually selected traits
Full expression depends on health of individual
69
Sex-specific vulnerabilities
The sex with the advantage shows a larger average change for the trait than the other sex (e.g., human height)
70
The indicators of sexual selection in primates are found in humans:
--Larger males than females --Delayed maturation in males --More maternal than paternal investment
71
Best studied in primates is:
Male-Male Competition
72
Male-Male competition in primates:
--Social dominance --Access to mates
73
male-male competition results in:
Large reproductive variance or reproductive skew
74
Competition occurs:
--One-on-one --Coalitions
75
Most common competition
One-on-one
76
Coalitions
Two or more individuals coordinate to gain dominance in their group --Short-term, gang up --Long-term relationships (not common)
77
Mandrills in Male-Male Competition
--One-on-one --Mature at 10 vs 6 years --Fight intensely for social dominance; dominant are fatted --Dominant males sire 75% of offspring --2 out of 3 males don't reproduce
78
Lar gibbon within Male-Male Competition
--Monogamous; socially isolated --Both sexes defend their mate from same-sex intruders --Both sexes can vary in color --About same size
79
Other Primates within Male-Male Competition
--Similar pattern to mandrills, but less extreme --Chimps: Dominant males sired 50% of offspring --Other males used censorships and physical intimidation
80
Hormones and Health within Male-Male Competition
--Dominant males are healthier --Testosterone levels depend on social stability --Cortisol (stress hormone) is higher in subordinate males and remains high after confrontation
81
Testosterone levels and social stability within male-male competition
--Low in dominant males when hierarchy is stable --Increase when challenged
82
Coalitions in male-male competition
--Less common among males than one-on-one --When it occurs, it's along-side one-on-one --Higher in Philopatric sex; females in most monkeys, males in apes --Chimps: Common, within-group dominance and between group fighting --Fighting is often deadly and over territory --Patrols occur one to several times a month --On average, attacking groups have a 5 to 1 advantage over the victim --Elimination of competing groups increases the victor's territory size; this increases the number of offspring females can successfully raise --Mountain gorilla groups have been expanding with more multi-male groups; there are now several reported cases of coalitionary aggression against lone males--sometimes including female attackers
83
Alternative mating strategies in male-male competition
--Consortship --Physical intimidation --Developmental differences
84
Female-Female Competition
--One-on-one and coalition over food, not males --In primates and mammals generally, male and female hierarchies differ --Competition over male friends
85
Male friends of females
--Friends provide protection from harassment and potential infanticide of their infants --Males in turn have increased chance of siring her next offspring
86
How do we make inferences about sexual selection during human evolution?
--Sex differences in physical size --Change in brain size --Commonalities with modern humans and related species, especially chimps, bonobos, and gorillas

Psychology Sex Differences (3 decks)

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