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Test 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

genotype

A

genetic makeup. Ex. TT, Tt, tt

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2
Q

phenotype

A

“outward” characteristics. A product of genetics and environment (Genotype +E). Ex. Tall, short.

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3
Q

prokaryotes

A

single-celled organisms in which the cell lacks a true nucleus (bacteria)

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4
Q

eukaryotes

A

have a true nucleus enveloped by a double membrane

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5
Q

gametes

A

reproductive cells (eggs and sperm)

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6
Q

somatic cells

A

all cells except gametes

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7
Q

What determines a cells function?

A

Nucleic acids within the cells nucleus

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8
Q

DNA

A

double stranded molecule which contains genetic code

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9
Q

RNA

A

single stranded molecule involved in protein synthesis. Differs from DNA in that uracil (U) replaces thymine (T). Occurs in three forms. mRNA, tRNA, rRNA.

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10
Q

nucleotides

A

Molecules making up nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). It’s made up of a nitrogenous base, a sugar and a phosphate group.

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11
Q

Nitrogenous bases

A

Adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C). Bonds only form between A and T, and C and G. [Animals are Tigers, Christians love God]

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12
Q

DNA structure

A

made up of two chains of nucleotides twisted into a double helix

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13
Q

enzymes

A

proteins which speed up chemical reactions

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14
Q

DNA replication

A

Specific enzymes break bonds between bases, and the exposed bases attract free-floating nucleotides, ending with two DNA molecules exactly like the original

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15
Q

protein

A

a chain of amino acids (AA)

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16
Q

triplet

A

a group of 3 DNA bases that code for a specific amino acid (AA)

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17
Q

Protein synthesis

A

the creation of proteins through transcription and translation.

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18
Q

Transcription

A

the formation of mRNA from DNA in a nucleus. Similar to process of DNA replication, but U replaces T and the mRNA forms a complement rather than a copy of the DNA template. Process continues until the forming mRNA strand reaches a terminator triplet, at which point it peels from the DNA and travels across the nuclear membrane to ribosome.

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19
Q

terminator triplet

A

codons ATT, ATC and ACT. Signal to end protein synthesis, at which point mRNA peels from DNA.

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20
Q

translation

A

Process in which the genetic instructions on the mRNA are translated into an AA chain (protein) at ribosome, then tRNA carries the AA matching mRNA codon and amino acids string together to form protein.

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21
Q

codon

A

a sequence of 3 nucleotides which form a unit of genetic code in DNA and RNA

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22
Q

ribosome

A

particle consisting of RNA and associated proteins, found in large numbers in the cytoplasm of living cells.

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23
Q

genes

A

segments of DNA that code for a protein or portion of a protein

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24
Q

alleles

A

alternate forms of a gene

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25
mutation
change in DNA
26
point mutation
chemical change in single base of DNA sequence
27
locus
position on DNA
28
exons
"expressed" DNA segments. Transcribed into mRNA and translated into AA chain. Some code for structural proteins while others are regulatory, switching on of off other DNA segments
29
introns
"junk DNA". Non-coding region of DNA, not translated into AA chain, but has important regulatory functions
30
chromosome
Tightly coiled threadlike structure of DNA and protein (chromatin) found in the nucleus. Comes in homologous pairs.
31
homologous pairs
chromosome pairs, similar in size and carry genetic info influencing the same traits, but not genetically identical.
32
autosome
governs physical characteristic except sex determination. Any chromosome that's not a sex chromosome
33
sex chromosomes
x and y.
34
karyotype
"chromosomal complement of an individual, or that which is common typical for a species." The number and visual appearance of chromosomes in the nuclei
35
humans have... chimps,gorillas have...
46 chromosomes (22 pairs of autosomes, 1 pair of sex chromosomes) . 48.
36
Mitosis
cell division in somatic cells. Produces two daughter cells genetically identical to each other.
37
Meiosis
Produces reproductive cells (gametes). Specialized cells in the testes/ovaries originally contain a full complement of chromosomes (diploid- 46 in humans) Two divisions then result in four daughter cells, each with have the original number of chromosomes (haploid- 23). A gamete (sperm) may then unite with another gamete (egg) to form a zygote with a diploid number of chromosomes (46 in humans)
38
crossing over (recombination)
In meiosis, prior to the first division, partner chromosomes come together and exchange genetic information. When gametes unite, it produces a novel combination of hereditary material.
39
non-disjunction
failure of homologous chromosomes to separate during cell division (monosomy, trisomy). Ex. trisomy 21= down syndrome
40
frontiers in DNA research
Taxonomy, medical applications, human genome project, polymerase chain reaction.
41
Polymerase chain reaction
amplifies (makes multiple copies of) DNA; useful when DNA is too small or fragmentary to sequence
42
mtDNA
mitochondrial DNA. Up to 1000 copies per cell (only one per nucleus), maternal inheritance (no recombination), high mutation rate (more accurate "molecular clock").
43
Ancient DNA
Usually mtDNa because of number of copies. Can be gathered from insects stuck in amber, or actual bodies or bones, etc.
44
cloning
can be done in two ways. 1) Nuclei from unfertilized egg are removed and replaced with nuclei from unspecialized cells derived from an embryo. Electronically or chemically induced to divide and implanted in surrogate. 2) Dolly the Sheep- donor nucleus came from a somatic cell of a mature sheep.
45
Gregor Mendel
"Father of genetics". Experimented on peas and discovered segregation, dominant and recessive "factors" and independent assortment.
46
Dominant
prevent expression of recessive alleles
47
Recessive
not expressed in presence of dominant alleles.
48
particulate inheritance (Mendel)
Particles passed from parent to offspring. Each parent had 2 but only passed 1 (principle of segregation). Today known as meiosis.
49
homozygous
TT, tt
50
heterozygous
Tt
51
Principle of Independent Assortment
The distribution of one pair of cells into gametes does not influence the distribution of another pair. The genes controlling different traits are inherited independently of one another. {does not apply to linked genes, located close together on a chromosome}
52
Mendelian Inheritance on Humans
>9600 traits. Dominant need 1 copy. Recessive needs 2. Ex. ABO blood system- 3 alleles, 9th chromosome pair.
53
Dominant vs. Recessive
not all or nothing in all cases. Recessive alleles in heterozygotes may have some influence. Ex. sickle-cell anemia.
54
Non-Mendelian patterns of inheritance (Polygenic)
Polygenic traits are influenced by genes at two or more loci. Continuous traits. Ex. skin/eye color, stature.
55
Non-mendelian patterns of influence (pleiotropy)
Single gene influences more than one phenotype expression. Very common. Ex. sickle-cell. Polygenic traits an pleiotropy are the rule.
56
Farm Fox Experiment
wild silver foxes were bred for tameness over 18 generation. Resulted in coat color changes, more gregarious, less shy, and less likely to bite. Likely due to decrease in fear/stress hormones and increase in particular neurotransmitters.
57
Modern Evolutionary Theory
At least a two stage process. 1) Production and distribution of variation. 2) Natural selection acting on this variation.
58
Modern Synthesis
Integrated genetics with the modern theory of Wallace and Darwin. Argued the the joint action of mutation, recombination and natural selection account for the major, long-term features of evolution.
59
Factors that Produce and Redistribute Variation
mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, recombination, natural selection.
60
Types of Natural Selection
Stabilizing. Disruptive. Directional.
61
Four Forces of Evolution
Gene flow (exchange of genes between populations). Genetic Drift (changes produced by random factors associated with small sample size). Mutation. Natural Selection.
62
Sociobiology
biological study of behavior. Closely related to evolutionary psych.
63
the Mason/Harlow rhesus macaque study
Rhesus macaques "raised" by cloth surrogates. Related studies suggest that socialization in general is what's important.
64
langur infanticide
involve troop takeovers and infanticide. Could be a reproductive strategy that ends LAM and allows new births.
65
types of social interaction
altruistic. mutualistic. selfish. spiteful.
66
group selections
explains altruism with individuals acting for the good of the group. Problem: selfish individuals prosper.
67
kin selection
Form of natural selection in which individuals fitness is influenced by the fitness of relatives.
68
Inclusive fitness
measures both direct (self) and indirect (relatives weighted by relatedness) fitness effects of ones actions.

BioPsychology (3 decks)

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