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Biology > Test #3- Genetics > Flashcards

Test #3- Genetics Flashcards

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1
Q

What happens during mitosis?

A

The stage where the cell’s nucleus and genetic material divide

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2
Q

What happens during interphase?

A

The stage where the cell carries out its normal functions, replicates and makes copies of its genetic material

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3
Q

What happens during cytokinesis?

A

At the end of mitosis and the rest of the cell divides

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4
Q

What are checkpoints?

A

Like a pause to regulate gene expression during cell division

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5
Q

Why are checkpoints helpful?

A

They stop the cell from living when a mistake is made or has uncontrolled division (they fix the problem and then the cell cycle continues normally)

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6
Q

What are the 4 stages of Mitosis?

A

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase

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7
Q

What happens during prophase?

A

Long strands of DNA condense and the nuclear membrane breaks down

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8
Q

What happens during metaphase?

A

The chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell and are held there by spindle fibres

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9
Q

What happens during anaphase?

A

The centromere splits and the sister chromatids are seperated. The daughter chromosomes are pulled to opposite sides of the cell by spindle fibres

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10
Q

What happens during telophase?

A

The daughter chromosomes stretch out (are no longer visible) and a new nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromatids

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11
Q

What are somatic cells?

A

Body cells where mitosis occurs

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12
Q

What is a chromosome?

A

Within the nucleus and hold genetic information needed to maintain the cell and make copies of the cell

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13
Q

How do dangerous mutations work?

A

They either affect a checkpoint gene so it’s protein doesn’t work properly or it can iscrupt the genes expression (makes too much or little of the product)

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14
Q

What happens when a checkpoint malfunctions?

A

The cell cycle continues even when the DNA is damaged, more mutations accumulate and the signaling mechanisms that cause abnormal cells to die stop working

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15
Q

What is a neoplasm?

A

An accumulation of abnormally dividing cells from a mutation in one cell to its descendent cells

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16
Q

What is a tumor?

A

Another word for a neoplasm (accumulation of abnormally dividing cells)

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17
Q

What is a benign neoplasm?

A

A tumor that grows quickly but doesn’t spread, and it also can take space from other organs

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18
Q

What are characteristics of malignant cells?

A

1) Divide abnormally (spread faster)
2) The cytoplasm and plasma membrane are altered, the cytoskeleton can be altered and the metabolism can be shifted (different cellular respiration so weird shape)
3) They can spread to other parts of the organism due to altered proteins that change the function of the plasma membrane

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19
Q

What are characteristics of cancerous cells?

A
  • Continue to grow and divide
  • Variation in size and shapes of cells
  • Nucleus is larger and darker than normal
  • Abnormal number of chromosomes and are disorganized
  • Cluster of cells without a boundary
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20
Q
A
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21
Q

What are autosomes?

A

Chromosomes not involved in sex determining

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22
Q

Why does meiosis occur?

A

In order for a zygote to have the right number of chromosomes, each sex cell needs to have a haploid number of chromosomes so when they combine they have a full number

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23
Q

What are sex chromosomes?

A

Chromosomes that determine the sex of the individual

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24
Q

What are homologous chromosomes?

A

They are a pair of chromosomes that have the same type of gene, but different alleles

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25
What is the difference between genes and alleles?
Genes are sections of DNA that contain genetic information for the inheritance of specific traits but alleles are different forms of the same gene
26
What is a karyotype?
A photograph of pairs of homologous chromosomes in a cell
27
What are the three general steps of meiosis?
Replication (46 single stranded to 46 double stranded), first division (chromosome # returns to normal) (2 copies of 23 double stranded) and then second division (sister chromatids separate to have 23 single stranded chromosomes)
28
What is the difference between mitosis and meiosis?
Mitosis creates 2 identical diploid daughter cells but meiosis creates 4 non-identical haploid daughter cells
29
What is the difference between meiosis I and meiosis II?
In meiosis I, everything is double stranded chromosomes (only homologous pairs separate) but in meiosis II, the chromosomes become single stranded
30
What happens during Prophase I?
DNA replication has already occurred and crossing over occurs
31
What is synapsis?
The pairing of homologous chromosomes?
32
What happens during metaphase I?
Homologous pairs align in the middle of the cell (metaphase plate) (alignment is random, increasing future diversity)
33
What happens during anaphase I?
Homologous pairs separate and each daughter cell now has 23 double stranded chromosomes (still have too much genetic information to be fertilized)
34
What happens during Telophase I?
Homologous chromosomes uncoil and spindle fibres disappear, cytokinesis takes place
35
What happens during metaphase II?
The chromosomes align at the metaphase plate
36
What happens during anaphase II?
The centromeres from the sister chromatids separate and move to opposite sides of the cell
37
What happens during telophase II?
The nuclei develop and cytokinesis occurs
38
What factors of meiosis increase genetic variation in organisms?
Independent assortment (different orientations of chromosomes) and crossing over
39
What is independent assortment in meiosis?
In metaphase I, the chromosomes are aligned in the middle of the cell in different orientations which could produce different combinations of chromosomes in the gametes (random which chromosome goes on each side)
40
What is crossing over? How does it increase genetic variation?
In prophase I, homologous chromosomes can exchange pieces which results in having unique chromosomes for each one that increases the amount of variations of traits
41
Why are errors during meiosis very dangerous?
They are in the sex cells, so all daughter cells/organisms will have this mutation
42
What is a double helix?
The spiral shape that includes the DNA made up of 2 long strands
43
What are nucleotides?
The individual units of each strand of DNA that have phosphates, sugars and bases
44
What are the 4 bases?
Adenine, guanine, thymine and cytosine
45
What are the errors that could happen during crossing over?
Deletion (a piece of a chromosome is deleted) Duplication (a section of a chromosomes appears 2 or more times in a row) Inversion (a section of a chromosome is inverted) Translocation (a segment of one chromosome becomes attacked to a different chromosomes, wrong gene on wrong chromosomes)
46
What is non-disjuction? What does it cause?
It is a failure of chromosomes to separate properly during meiosis during anaphase, causes offspring to have a missing or extra chromosome (results in the addition or deletion of chromosomes from a gamete)
47
What is monosomy?
When a chromosome is lost due to non-disjunction
48
What is trisomy?
When there is an extra chromosome due to non-disjunction
49
What is monohybrid inheritance?
When there are 2 traits and they are either fully dominant or fully recessive (represented by capital and lowercase letter)
50
What is incomplete dominance? How is it represented on a punnett square?
When the traits are not fully dominant or recessive, so they can blend when heterozygous (represented by capitals with superscripts)
51
What is co-dominant? How are their genotypes represented?
When both alleles are fully expressed (no blending) (represented by capital letter and superscript)
52
When is being heterozygous an advantage?
With incomplete dominance or co-dominance because you get the best of both traits (ex. sickle cell anemia where you are immune to malaria but also not dying)
53
What is Mendel's Second Law?
The Law of Independent Assortment where he believed that two traits have no effect on the inheritance of each other (located on different chromosomes)
54
What were Mendel's results from his second experiment?
The dihybrid cross ratios of 9 dominant, dominant: 3 dominant, recessive: 3 recessive, dominant: 1 recessive, recessive
55
What are the blood genotypes and phenotypes?
Type O --> ii Type A --> IA IA or IA i Type B --> IB IB or IB i Type AB --> IA IB
56
What is polygenic inheritance?
When alleles of two or more genes together determine a single trait (ex. dog colour for Labrador retrievers)
57
What is sex-linked inheritance?
When the transmission of genes is located on the sex chromosomes
58
What is the difference between X-linked and Y-linked genes?
X-linked is located on the X chromosome and can be in either males or females, Y-linked is located on the Y chromosomes and is only on males
59
Who is most likely to show sex-linked recessive traits?
Males, because they only have 1 X chromosomes, so if it is recessive it shows
60
What are linked genes?
Genes that are located on the same chromosomes and that tend to be inherited (not independently assorted)
61
What can linked genes stop being linked?
During crossing over in meiosis I, they can swap the alleles of the genes on the chromosomes
62
What is the chi-squared formula?
X2 = (observed - expected)2 /expected
63
How do you determine the degree of freedom?
The number of data points - 1
64
How do you determine if the dihybrid cross follows Mendels second law?
If the determined chi-squared value is less than the critical value, then the hypothesis is confirmed
65
What is a pedigree?
A type of flowchart to symbolize the pattern of inheritance in a family over generations
66
What are the rules for pedigrees?
- Males are squares and females are circles - Filled in has the trait and empty doesn't have it expressed - If it is crossed out, it is diseases - They are numbered left to right - Top to bottom levels are in Roman numerals
67
What is autosomal inheritance?
Refers to the inheritance of traits whose genes are found on the chromosomes (1-22 in humans) (not sex-linked)
68
How do you determine if a pedigree is autosomal dominant?
When both parents have the trait but the child doesn't
69
How to determine if the trait is autosomal recessive?
Two unaffected parents and an affected child
70
What are the rules for autosomal recessive?
- Males and females have the same chance for expressing the trait - You can only express the trait if you are homozygous - If both parents express the trait, all their offspring has to express the trait - If the offspring expresses the trait, but the parents dont, both parents are heterozygous - If one parent expresses the trait and their offspring doesn't it is heterozygous - The trait can skip generations
71
How to determine if a trait is X-linked dominant?
An affected male and a normal female always have no affected sons and all affected daughters
72
How to determine if the trait is X-linked recessive?
The allele is mostly in males and it skips a generation
73

Biology (3 decks)

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