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Physiology S2 > Test 3: Utilization of Organic Nutrients > Flashcards

Test 3: Utilization of Organic Nutrients Flashcards

1
Q

How is most energy transferred to the animal body? In what form?

A
  • glucose
  • fatty acids
  • amino acids
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2
Q

What happens to molecules which are not utilized for synthesis of new organic molecules? What is produced?

A
  • oxidation
  • CO2 and H2O is produced
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3
Q

What happens during oxidation?

A
  • most energy is released as heat (converted to heat)
  • energy released during oxidation of nutrients is transferred to ATP (used to transfer energy inside the cells)
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4
Q

How is energy supplied to the body?

A

digestion of food

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5
Q

What must the body be able to do due to digestion not being continuous?

A

Store energy during digestion, and mobilize it during periods when there is no supply of exogenous energy.

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6
Q

What hapens when the body doesnt fully utilize the nutrients absorbed from the intestines? What form is it stored in?

A

Excess is stored as glycogen and triglycerides (lipids).

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7
Q

What molecule is the most suitable form of energy for storage? Why?

A

fat
- contains much energy per unit weight
- contains very little water
- storage requires less space

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8
Q

What form of energy is easily mobilized?

A

glycogen

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9
Q

What is metabolism?

A

A collective term for all the chemical reactions that occur in the body.

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10
Q

What processes does metabolism consist of?

A
  • catabolism (release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler ones)
  • anabolism (require energy to synthesise large organic molecules)
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11
Q

What is catabolism?

A
  • produce energy
  • break down molecules
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12
Q

What is anabolism?

A
  • requires energy
  • synthesise large molecules
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13
Q

What are the two phases of metabolism?

A
  • absorptive state (body obtains energy by oxidizing nutrients that enter the blood from the intestine)
  • postabsorptive state (nutrients are mobilized from the body’s stores)
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14
Q

What is the absorptive state?

A

Body obtains energy by oxidizing nutrients that enter the blood from the intestine.

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15
Q

What is the postabsorptive state?

A

Nutrients are mobilized from the body’s stores.

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16
Q

Is the absorptive state anabolic or catabolic? What happens?

A

anabolic!
- excess amino acids are converted into triglycerides in the liver

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17
Q

What happens in the postabsorptive state?

A

energy is released from the source

  • glycogenolysis (glycogen is broken down into glucose)
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18
Q

Where does the absorptive state take place?

A

in the gastrointestinal tract

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19
Q

Where does the postabsorptive state take place?

A
  • muscles
  • adipose tissues
  • liver

glucose

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20
Q

What organ plays a big role in metabolism and the conversion of nutrients? Why?

A

Liver
- maintains a stable glucose concentration in blood

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21
Q

What does the liver do in the absorptive state?

A

removes glucose from the portal blood
- prevents any large rise in glucose concentration in systemic blood

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22
Q

What does the liver do in the postabsorptive state?

A

exports glucose to the blood
- mobilized glycogen stores (glycogenesis)
- produces glucose from other sources (gluconeogenesis)

23
Q

List the small and large carbohydrate molecules in the diet.

A

small:
- glucose
- lactose
- sucrose

large:
- starch
- glycogen
- cellulose

24
Q

Explain what is absorbed in a non-herbivore diet.

A

GLUCOSE: main monosaccharide absorbed

Galactose + Fructose: also absorbed

liver: galactose and fructose converted to glucose

25
Q

Explain what is absorbed in a herbivore diet.

A

CELLULOSE constitutes most of dietary carbohydrates.

26
Q

Explain what is absorbed in a ruminants diet. What are they converted into? How?

A

most carbohydrates (including cellulose) are converted into VFA’s (volatile fatty acids)

(by microbial enzymes in the forestomach)

27
Q

Explain what is absorbed in simple-stomached herbivores. Where is it metabolised?

A

metabolism of cellulose occurs in the large intestine.

28
Q

What happens to glucose in after it is absorbed?

A

LIVER:
- stored in hepatocytes as glycogen
- converted to lipids

MUSCLES:
- transported to muscle cells, stored as glycogen
- (easily mobilizable energy source during muscle work)

ADIPOSE TISSUE:
- removed from the body by adipocytes, glucose is used for triglyceride synthesis.

29
Q

What are the three postabsorptive state mechanisms? What do they do?

A

keep glucose concentration in plasma fairly stable:
- glycogenesis (make glucose)
- gluconeogenesis (make glucose)
- glucose sparing (utilization of lipids)

30
Q

What is glycogenolysis? What are the main organs involved in the process?

A

the process which converts glycogen back into glucose.

  • liver mobilizes glycogen reserves and releases glucose into the blood.
31
Q

What is gluconeogenesis? Where does it happen? What are the substates?

A
  • the production of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources
  • major organs: liver and kidneys
  • substrates: lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids
32
Q

What is glucose sparing? What is its function?

A
  • tissues gradually convert to utilizing lipids as the major energy source
  • supports gluconeogenesis by preventing a rapid decline in blood glucose during starvation.
33
Q

Explain protein metabolism. What is special in ruminants?

A

amino acid is converted to glucose or fatty acids by hepatocytes.

ruminants:
- most amino acids supply is derived from microbial proteins synthesised in the forestomach.

34
Q

What is the difference between non-essential amino acids and essential amino acids?

A

non-essential amino acids: amino acids which hepatocytes can form.

essential amino acids: must be obtained by food

35
Q

What do hepatocytes produce in protein metabolism?

A
  • albumin
  • fibrinogen
  • enzymes
  • coagulation factors
  • complement
  • hormone-transporting globulins
36
Q

What is the major part of amino acids converted into? Where? How?

A

amino acid (major part) –> keto acid

  • hepatocytes
  • by deamination of the amino group (-NH2)
37
Q

What happens to keto acids?

A
  • enter pathways for carbohydrate metabolism (completely degraded providing energy for hepatocytes)
  • used to synthesise fatty acids (triglycerides transported out of the liver)
38
Q

What are some amino groups from deamination of amino acids used in?

A

the formation of non-essential amino acids (transamination).

39
Q

What is transamination?

A

The formation of non-essential amino acids by using amino groups from the deamination of amino acids.

40
Q

What is released when keto acids are formed?

A

keto acids formed from amino acids.

released (toxic substances):
- ammonia (NH3)
- ammonium (NH4)

41
Q

What do hepatocytes do to NH3 and NH4? State differences in simple-stomached animals, ruminants and birds.

A

Hepatocytes convert NH3 and NH4 into urea.

Simple-stomached animals:
- kidneys excrete all urea produced.

Ruminants:
- urea is transferred to forestomachs
- by diffusion from plasma & secretion of saliva
- urea is converted to NH3 and NH4
- used for microbial protein synthesis

Birds:
- amino acids are sequestered in uric acid
- excreted to urine
- uric acid enables the developing avian embryo to avoid deleterious osmotic and toxin effects

42
Q

What happens if the body recieves more amino acids than are needed? What happens with the products?

A

The surplus of amino acids is not stored in cells! It is deaminated into keto acids.

keto acids:
- used as cellular fuel
- converted to glucose and glycogen
- used in fat synthesis

43
Q

Explain the main features of lipid metabolism. Types of lipids. Transport. Use.

A

Types fo lipids:
- triglycerides: major component of dietary lipids and lipid stores
- cholesterol and phospholipids: cell membranes

Transport:
- transported from intestinal epithelial cells in the form of chylomicrons
- stored as triglycerides in adipose tissue

Use:
1) Chylomicrons
- used directly as energy source
- degraded to fatty acids
- by lipoprotein lipase

2) Free fatty acids
- diffuse across endothelial cells
- used for resythesis of triglycerides (in adipose, mammary and other cells)

3) Chylomicron remenants (remaining particles)

44
Q

What happens after a meal is ingested (lipids)?

A
  • lipid content of blood increases
  • lipids stem from chylomicrons and lipids produced in the liver (VLDL’s very low density lipoproteins)
  • chylomicrons are rapidly released from blood
  • 4-5h before all absorbed lipids are removed from the plasma (after a fatty meal)
  • plasma has a milky appearance (high concentration of lipid particles)
45
Q

What is the exogenous and endogenous lipid metabolism pathway?

A

exogenous: chylomicrons
endogenous: LDL and VLDL

46
Q

What are the hormones used for the regulation of the metabolism of organic nutrients?

A
  • insulin
  • glucagon
  • cortisol
  • epinephrine
  • growth hormone
47
Q

What does insulin do?

A

Regulates the metabolism of glucose, amino acids, and lipids.

48
Q

What does insulin and glucagon do?

A

insulin and glucagon collaborate (in opposite directions) to stabilize the level of glucose and fatty acids in plasma.

49
Q

What does glucagon do?

A

stimulate glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis

50
Q

What does epinephrine do?

A

potent inducer of glycogenolysis

51
Q

What does the growth hormone do?

A

stimulate the mobilization of fatty acids and glycerol (during starvation and long term stress)

52
Q

What is adipose tissue innervated by? What happens in a decrease in plasma glucose concentration?

A
  • sympathetic nervous system
  • decrease in plasma glucose concentration = increase in activity of sympathetic neurons = triggered rise in catecholamine secretion from adrenal medulla
53
Q

What does norepinephrine do?

A
  • released by sympathetic nerve fibers
  • pancrease
  • epinephrine- adrenal medulla
  • inhibits insulin secretion
54
Q

What is hypoglycemia? How can it be seen in piglets?

A

low glocose concentration in plasma.
- piglets lay on belly, dehydrated, shivers, hair standing on ends.

Physiology S2 (17 decks)

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