The army and conquest during the consulate and Empire, 1798-1808 Flashcards
(42 cards)
1
Q
Reasons for military success by 1808 (development of weaponry and techniques)
A
- After the Seven Years War, military equipment underwent a series of reforms in order to make France a more formidable opponent in the future. This included the manufacture of a much lighter canon, which enabled a much quicker advance as it was much easier to transport. Additionally, enabled the moving of canons strategically around the battlefield, which was far more effective than a static, heavy canon.
- Count Guibert was a military strategist who made a series of recommendations which were directly adopted by Napoleon. He received existing battle formation tactics, which generally involved movement of troops in columns and then deployment on battlefields in lines and recommended that commanders make flexible combinations of both for a less rigid and more effective attack.
2
Q
Reasons for military success by 1808 (impact of the revolution)
A
- During the revolution, many old noble generals were replaced with younger, more dynamic generals. This was because of the revolutionary principle of ‘careers open to talent’.
- The policy of ‘living of the land’ wasn’t Napoleon’s innovation but was actually developed out of necessity during the revolution because revolutionary government were unable to supply large armies. It ended up being an incredibly beneficial policy, however, enabling troops to move much faster without having to wait for heavy supplies dragging behind.
- From 1793 (after the levee en masse) conscription is essentially institutionalised, meaning that Napoleon inherits a very large army which is far numerically superior to her enemies.
3
Q
Napoleon’s skill and leadership as reasons for military success by 1808
A
- Napoleon developed the corps system himself, which split the army into around 15,000-30,000 men, each containing elements of cavalry, artillery and infantry (meaning that each corps was like a mini army in itself). Each corps should also be within a day’s march of at least two others, meaning that they could hear shots and join forces when another corps needed help.
- He studied the writings of military strategists such as Guibert, so his adopting of them was due to his own dedication and studies, so can’t simply be credited to other people.
- He often rode around on horseback along the front line, risking his life in order to raise morale and show the troops that they had nothing to be afeared of.
- From a bulletin in 1805 in the campaign against Austria, he wrote ‘the Emperor is among you. He sets the examples; he is on horseback day and night’
4
Q
Why does the war of the Second Coalition start?
A
- France and Austria become suspicious of each other again, especially with France meddling in Italian affairs which they promised not to do in the Treaty of Campo Formio
- Napoleon is distracted in Egypt, so Austria and others are tempted to use his absence to their advantage and form an even stronger coalition.
5
Q
Marengo: Napoleon’s strengths
A
- In the spring of 1799, Napoleon marches an army with extreme speech from Dijon (in central France) to Italy in order to surprise the Austrians there, which he successfully does. His tactics of living off the land as well as his corps system enable such a quick advance.
- He also ensured that the Austrians were surprised through publicising the ‘fact’ that, as first consul, he was prohibited by the constitution from going to war.
- Napoleon took the unexpected route of marching across the Alps to reach Italy, meaning that he could approach the rear of the Austrian army which it was already engaged in battle.
6
Q
Marengo: Napoleon’s blunders
A
- He had a fixed notion that Austrians would retreat towards Mantua (like they did last time in 1796), so made a fatally bad decision to split his troops in order to block the routes to Mantua and Genoa. In doing so, he deprived himself of some 12,000 men.
- Once he realised that the battle wasn’t going in his favour, he sent messages to both commanders but neither received them (even though Desaix ended up marching to the sound of the guns anyway).
- During the actual battle, therefore, Napoleon made several crucial errors.
7
Q
Marengo: strengths of Napoleon’s generals
A
- Desaix, having been sent by Napoleon to block the route to Genoa, marched on his own instinct towards the sound of guns towards the main battle at Marengo. He ended up saving Napoleon from a battle which the opponent had already judged won, demonstrating how the skill and instinct of Napoleon’s generals was most important in enabling the victory.
8
Q
Marengo: weaknesses of the enemy
A
- Melas was overconfident and judged the battle won far too early, leaving it to a less competent general to finish off the job. This meant that, when Desaix’s troops arrived, the Austrians were in a lazy formation and overconfident, leading to the French victory.
9
Q
Outcome of Marengo
A
- Roughly 1000 Austrian soldiers killed and 3000 prisoners. Pretty good outcome for Napoleon.
- BUT there were still some 1000 French soldiers killed (including General Desaix, who was the real saviour of the battle) and 900 taken prisoner.
10
Q
Impact of Marengo on Napoleon’s career
A
- Marengo was 14th June 1800
- Although the War of the Second Coalition continued for six months and was only ended in December 1800 with the Battle of Hohenlinden at which Napoleon was not present), the Battle of Marengo can be considered the point at which a coalition victory became impossible.
- The victorious battle gave Napoleon a certain legitimacy which he seemed to lack during the Coup of Brumaire, so helped consolidate his power and position.
11
Q
What treaty followed the battle of Marengo + details
A
- This was the peace settlement which followed Napoleon’s victory over the Austrians by the end of 1800.
- Unlike the Treaty of Campo Formio, it marked only an incremental increase in French territorial power, with the Austrians making some gains too (i.e., gaining some papal-controlled territories)
12
Q
What treaty did France sign with Britain after Marengo + details
A
- After Hohenlinden, Britain was the only country still at war with France. Britain had no means of successfully attacking the continent, and France did not want to go up against the Royal Navy, so they had to resort to a peace settlement.
- Terms of the Peace of Amiens:
a) France agreed to leave the United Provinces, Naples and the Papal States
b) Britain agrees to leave Egypt and return it to the Turks
c) Britain restores independence to Malta
d) Britain returns Cape Colony to the Dutch
e) All overseas territories taken by the British over the past nine years is returned to the French. - The treaty outrages many in Britain, who this they’ve been ripped off. Evidence that it was negotiated well on Napoleon’s part.
13
Q
Why does the peace of Amiens break down
A
- Napoleon starts meddling in European affairs again, annexing German states and even the island of Elba.
- Additionally, Britain refuses the leave Malta.
- As a result, in May 1803 Britain declare war against France and the coalition war resumes.
14
Q
The War of the Third Coalition - who makes up the coalition and what are their motivations?
A
- Britain is the main power behind the coalition. She is motivated primarily by the fear of a French invasion, as this is a plan Napoleon seems increasingly set on; he went on to build an ‘Army of England’ between 1803 and 1805, comprising 193,000 men and thousands of horses. It was camped along the channel coast. This idea was only dropped in 1805 after the Battle of Trafalgar.
- Russia also joins because it’s threatened by French meddling in Italian affairs.
- Austria also joins for similar reasons, wanting to regain land and restore France to its 1791 borders.
- The coalition is formed in August 1805.
15
Q
Ulm: Napoleon’s strengths (Prussia + turning manoeuvre)
A
- He managed to keep Prussia out of the coalition through offering Hanover if they promised their neutrality – meant that Austria only had Russia to help, but their calendars were misaligned, and the Russians were lagging behind.
- Napoleon marches past Mack and then turns round in order to attack his rear. This strategy, as supposed to simply attacking Mack’s front line, was effective because it completely cut off the Austrians from their Russian allies who were following up behind them, leaving Mack isolated.
- Napoleon managed to swing the Grande Armee around in a complex envelopment manoeuvre so that they are attacking his rear and catch him off guard. This is done very quickly and effectively and works.
- He marches at an astonishing speed of 18 miles per day in order to reach Mack’s army before the Russians could keep up, meaning that Mack was caught off guard and was fighting without his promised backup.
16
Q
Ulm: Napoleon’s strengths (the actual encounter)
A
- The ‘Battle of Ulm’ (though not really a battle) was a series of skirmishes from 16th-19th October 1805 but ended up in Napoleon trapping the entire Austrian army
- Napoleon’s corps system is particularly effective at Ulm because he is able to quickly surround Mack’s forces from all directions without leaving one particular area particularly vulnerable/exposed (because the point of the corps is that they contain all the necessary elements so act as self-sufficient mini armies)
- Napoleon manages to humiliate Mack and his troops through forcing a surrender on 20th October without any major clash actually happening. The Austrian troops put down their weapons in direct sight of Napoleon whilst surrounded by his troops.
17
Q
Ulm: strengths of the Grand Armee
A
- Numerical superiority very important here, with the Grande Armee totalling 170,000 in comparison to the 70,000 Austrian troops. This meant they could be surrounded easily.
- Napoleon’s corps system was only effective under effective leadership; there were seven corps under quality generals such as Murat and Ney (who Napoleon relied on for cavalry fighting, as Napoleon was an expert on artillery but not so much on other aspects of fighting)
18
Q
Ulm: weaknesses of the enemy
A
- General Mack moved prematurely to Ulm rather than waiting for the Russians to catch up with them (and the Russians happened to be a lot further behind than expected). This meant that his army of 72,000 was hugely outnumbered by the French army of 170,000 (as Napoleon had tactically concentrated his troops here in order to force a surrender).
- This premature move was also partly because of Mack’s overconfidence and underestimation of Napoleon’s army, not believing that he could have more than 70,000 troops.
- The Russians were so far behind partly because there was an 11-day difference in their calendars. This miscommunication proved fatal.
19
Q
Outcome of Ulm
A
- Mack surrenders on 20th October 1805 without having even properly engaged with the French troops, but simply based on how obvious a French victory would be.
- France ends up capturing over 50,000 Austrian troops + lots of weapons including 300 ammunition wagons.
20
Q
Austerlitz: date + Napoleon’s strengths (preparation for battle)
A
December 1805 (after Ulm in October)
* Napoleon meets a Russian envoy and projects the idea of military weakness, as if he’s about to retreat and return to Paris, onto him so that the information is relayed back to Tzar Alexander. By doing so, he ensures that the Russians attack very soon and in the place that he wants them to attack from (the Pratzen Heights, near the town of Austerlitz). He also ensures that the Russians are overconfident so less cautious.
* At the same time, Napoleon orders Marshal Davout and Bernadotte to march quickly from their camps towards Austerlitz, essentially laying a trap for the Russians.
* Napoleon even wakes up at 3am after receiving news that the Russians had taken a slightly unexpected position and makes the necessary tactical adjustments before going back to sleep.
21
Q
Austerlitz: Napoleon’s strengths (during battle)
A
- Napoleon shows as few troops as possible in order to encourage an allied advance down from the Pratzen Heights (i.e., by withdrawing Soult’s troops and having Davout arrive much later)
- After encouraging an allied advance down the hill through appearing weaker than he actually was, Napoleon then had hidden French units charge back up the hill to attack the exposed Russian middle.
- Napoleon also orders a 90 degrees manoeuvre (like at Ulm) so that he can attack the Russians from their rear. He successfully does so and ends up driving them into a swamy lake where they’re unable to defend themselves.
22
Q
Austerlitz: potential blunders from Napoleon?
A
- Arguably he was overconfident. He gave the allies the better terrain (up on the Pratzen Heights) despite being numerically inferior – 67,000 troops (without Davout’s corps) vs. the allied 90,000
- Delaying the arrival of Davout’s corps was risky and he only barely made it in time to hold Napoleon’s right flank
23
Q
Austerlitz: strengths of the generals
A
- Davout marches at remarkable speed to join the battle and hold Napoleon’s right flank. It was impressive that he managed to pull this off, and Napoleon took a big gamble in initially separating his 6,000 men from the main battle.
- Though the Grande Armee is actually numerically inferior here, suggesting that Napoleon’s planning and military tactics is what really secured the victory.
24
Q
Austerlitz: weaknesses of the enemy
A
- The generals are very complacent and don’t take the attack very seriously. They only plan their attack strategy the night before and some generals doze off in the meeting. This contrasts to Napoleon and his generals, who have been planning the battle for a while and understand the terrain completely.
- The troops advance into a swamp and get stuck – horrible idea by the Tsar and shows that they didn’t really understand the terrain.
25
Outcome of Austerlitz
* Allies in retreat by 3pm and a ceasefire announced at 5pm – very quick battle, only starting at 7am
* Roughly one third of the 90,000 allied troops end up as casualties, whereas there are less than 2000 French deaths.
* The day after the battle, Austria seeks an armistice
26
Trafalgar: Napoleon's fault
* The reason why a royal fleet under Nelson was sent out the blockade the French and Spanish ships was because they had been stationed by Napoleon to provide backup in the case of an invasion of England. Napoleon had been planning an invasion of England since 1803 was building an ‘Army of England’.
27
Trafalgar: the fault of Napoleon's generals
* Went against Napoleon’s orders in moving out 33 ships on 19th October to sea. The Royal Navy was just supposed to blockade the French and Spanish fleet, but Villaneuve’s attempt to escape, believing the British fleet to be much smaller than it actually was, meant that they engaged in a battle which proved utterly humiliating.
* On the morning of 21st October, the French and Spanish ships had started reversing back to Cadiz before changing their mind, meaning that their line was confused and in disarray during the battle. For naval battles it is important to have a strong, uniform formation and plan, and this was completely absent from the beginning just because of Villeneuve’s silliness. The French and Spanish fleet was actually numerically superior (33 to 27), so it was tactical silliness and lack of experience on the French and Spanish side which did it.
28
Trafalgar: Nelson's strengths
* Villeneuve orders his ships into a classic defensive formation – a long line, side on to the English. However, Nelson makes a risky but very tactful move and makes his ships advance forward head and decisively break the line in two places. This scatters the French and Spanish fleet and enables the British win; the Franco-Spanish fleet lose 22 ships (huge chunk of their total naval power) whereas the British lose none (though Nelson does get shot during the battle and die).
29
Significance of Trafalgar
* Ends Napoleon’s hopes of an invasion of England, as he must face the reality of France’s inferior naval power and experience.
* Trafalgar was also arguably a turning point for Napoleon because it confined him to battles in continental Europe (as supposed to Egypt-style colonial campaigns, for instance).
30
What treaty follows the Austrian defeat at Austerlitz?
The Treaty of Pressburg, December 1805
* This treaty was between France and Austria and was the result of Napoleon’s victorious Austerlitz campaign.
* France took all Austria's Italian and German lands
* Austria pays reparations worth 40m Francs.
* The treaty is so harsh that it essentially ensures that Austria will – at some point – attack again in order to win back its prestige.
31
What provoked Prussia and Russia to wage war against Britain again in 1806/7? Name the three key battles
* In July 1806, Napoleon also creates the ‘Confederation of the Rhine’ in central/western Germany, which provoked the Prussians and led them to join Russia and Britain in September 1806.
The Battle of Jena-Auerstadt, October 1806
The Battle of Eylau, February 1807
The Battle of Friedland, June 1807
32
Details of Jena-Auerstadt
* There were essentially two battles going on here: one near Auerstadt under Marshal Davout’s corps and one at Jena under Napoleon.
* Davout pulled a remarkable feat in feeding his three tired divisions who had been marching all night and then launching a ferocious counterattack after having been surprised by the main Prussian column under the duke of Brunswick.
* Napoleon had a slightly easier job at Jena as he was trying to surprise a Prussian flank-guard (not the main army), but still fought excellently and secured a decisive defeat through opening up the enemy to a massed cavalry charge.
* Napoleon enters Berlin unopposed and the Prussians flee to East Prussia to get out of the way of the Grande Armee
* The Prussians seek peace, but the conditions Napoleon offers are so harsh that they literally cannot afford to accept them, so war, in theory, goes on. Prussia hopes that the Russians will take on Napoleon instead.
33
Details of the battle of Eylau
* On 7th February 1807, the French and Russian armies finally meet at the Battle of Eylau
* The battle takes place in the middle of a snowstorm, meaning that that the soldiers on both sides are confused and cannot follow the simplest strategy of attack. They are just hurled at one another.
* The condition of the Grande Amree has significantly deteriorated since Austerlitz, with roughly 1/3 of soldiers being fresh conscripts from within the past six months, meaning that Napoleon is no longer fighting with the same experienced and hardy men he was used to.
* Both sides ended up withdrawing from the battle in the midst of the slaughter, with both the Russians and French claiming a victory for themselves.
34
Consequences of Eylau
* Napoleon has to accept that his army is much less experienced that he is used to.
* He learns from his mistakes, though, and spends the rest of the winter drilling his soldiers thoroughly in preparation for their next battle.
35
Details of the Battle of Friedland
* The next encounter with the Russians is at the Battle of Friedland on 13th June 1807.
* The Russians foolishly had the river behind them, and Napoleon exploited this in order to secure an easy and decisive victory, ordering Ney to crush the enemy against the river.
* Napoleon helped inspire the troops by announcing that it was the ‘anniversary of Marengo’ (which it almost was)
* It’s a decisive victory and huge reassurance for Napoleon.
36
Peace of Tilsit: terms with Russia
a) Russia agrees to join the Continental Blockade
b) Russia gives Cattaro and the Ionian Islands to France
c) France agrees to help Russia in a war with Turkey if the Turks refuse to give Russia a large slice of their European land (so Russia is making some gains too)
d) France and Russia agree to help each other if attacked (genuine alliance, not intended as a temporary halt in war to be resumed in the near future)
37
Peace of Tilsit: terms with Prussia
a) Agrees to join the continental blockade
b) Recognises Napoleon’s newly formed Confederation of the Rhine
c) Reparations are set at 120m francs – so high that Frederick William could basically never rid himself of the Grand Armee (who stayed until it was paid)
d) Loses half her population and free access to the sea
38
Evidence of Napoleon's expansion of Empire being driven by a desire to spread enlightened ideas
a) A conversation recounted by Las Cases in May 1816: Napoleon wanted to build an ‘Empire of reason’ which included the ‘full exercise and complete enjoyment of all the human faculties’
b) A conversation with Benjamin Constant in 1815: ‘The world begged me to govern it’ – kind of social contract with the people? (could support this with how the local aristocrats in Poland greeted Napoleon as their saviour from despotism)
39
Glory and personal destiny
a) Quote from Napoleon: ‘Destiny urges me to a goal of which I am ignorant. Until that goal is attained I am invulnerable, unassailable.’
40
'Universal Empire'
a) Napoleon in 1805 to Bourrienne: ‘There must be a superior power which dominates all the other powers’ – this is how they will be able to live in ‘harmony’ – linked to enlightened ideas arguably, though, because if he thinks that his government is enlightened then surely the bigger the empire the better it is for humanity
41
Financial and military resources
a) By 1810 France had 130 departments and a population of 44 million.
42
Dynastic power/personal influence
a) Napoleon’s brother Joseph was made King of Naples then King of Spain from 1808
b) Another of his brothers, Louis, was made King of Holland
c) Napoleon put some of his marshals in power: Marshal Murat was made King of Naples in 1808
