The carbon cycle and energy security Flashcards
(115 cards)
1
Q
What is the full name of the carbon cycle?
A
The biogeochemical carbon cycle
2
Q
How much carbon is stored in the oceans?
A
38,000 PgC
3
Q
How much carbon is stored in the atmosphere?
A
750 PgC
4
Q
How much carbon stored in soils?
A
1950 PgC
5
Q
How much carbon stored in vegitation?
A
550 PgC
6
Q
How much Carbon stored in sedimentary rocks?
A
83,000,000 PgC
7
Q
How much carbon stored in fosil fuels?
A
1471 PgC, though this is constantly falling due to human activity
8
Q
How much carbon is stored in perma frost?
A
1700 PgC
9
Q
How big is the flux from photosynthesis?
A
123 PgC
10
Q
How big is the flux from respiration?
A
60PgC
11
Q
How big is the flux from Ocean to atmosphere?
A
78 PgC
12
Q
How big is the flux from the atmosphere to the oceans?
A
80 PgC
13
Q
How big is the flux derived through the burning of fossil fuels?
A
8-10 PgC
14
Q
Explain the geological carbon cycle
A
Rainwater becomes a weak carbonic acid when it absorbs
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere that then reacts with silicate minerals. This chemical weathering process releases ions such as calcium, which are transported by rivers to the oceans, where organisms combine calcium with dissolved
carbon to create calcium carbonate which they use for shells. Carbonate rock forms via sedimentation of dead organisms, which creates strata of sedimentary rock. carbon is released back into the atmosphere by volcanism and the metamorphism of sedimentary rocks.
15
Q
What are the three pumps of carbon in the ocean?
A
The biological pump, the carbonate pump and the physical pump
16
Q
Explain the biologicl pump of carbon within the ocean?
A
Phytoplankton are tiny, single celled microorganisms.They make up less than 1% of the worlds biomass, but half of it’s primary production. They move close to the oceans surface to photosynthesise, as they have chlorophyl. As the basis of the ocean food chain, they sequester carbon from the atmosphere and pass it up the foodchain to form organic matter. They can decay, releasing carbon back into the ocean.
17
Q
Explain the carbonte pump of carbon in the oceans
A
marine organisms such as mollusks, crabs and plankton use the bicarbonate ions (HCO₃⁻) to form calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), which they use to build their shells and skeletons.
When these organisms die, most of their calcium carbonate shells disolve, releasing carbon into ocean currents which can be transfered back into the atmosphere. Some sink to the ocean floor, carrying carbon to the deep ocean, where they become compacted and form sedimentary rocks, storing carbon for long periods.
18
Q
Explain the Phyical pump of carbon within the ocean
A
The physical pump refers to the ocean’s role in moving carbon through deep ocean currents. This process is driven by the thermohaline circulation
Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere enters the ocean through diffusion, thoAt higher latitudes (near the poles), the water cools down and becomes denser (saltier water from evaporation also adds to this). This cold, dense water sinks to the deep ocean, carrying dissolved carbon with it as cold water can store more carbon than warm waters. As this cold water sinks, it triggers a global pattern of deep-ocean currents. These currents transport carbon to the deeper parts of the ocean, where it can be stored for centuries or longer.
This deep-water carbon can eventually upwell (move back toward the surface) in other parts of the ocean, releasing the carbon back into the atmosphere as it warms near the tropics (as warm water stores less carbon). But for a time, this carbon is sequestered deep in the ocean.
19
Q
Explain the role of terrestial vegitation in the carbon cycle
A
Terresterial vegitation sequesters carbon during photosynthesis. In a process of carbon fixation, it turns gaseous carbon into organic matter in the cells of autotrophs and is stored there. Carbon can be released back into the atmosphere through respiration, meaning there is a continuning balance between oxygen and carbon in the atmosphere and eventually decompisition. However, deforestation is reducing the effectiveness of this store by accelerating the process by which the carbon sequested in the vegitation is returned to the atmosphere.
20
Q
How is biological carbon stored and released through soils?
A
Carbon can be stored in soil in the form of dead organic matter, or be released back into the atmosphere through decomposition.
21
Q
Why are mangrove forests especially effective at storing carbon in their soils?
A
Mangrove soil contains a rich layer of carbon rich materials such as humus and peat (over 10% carbon). Submerged by tides twice a day, their soil is anaerobic. Bacteria cannot live without oxygen, so decomposition tends to be very slow.
22
Q
How much mangrove has been lost due to human activity?
A
50%
23
Q
Why are tundra soils effective at storing carbon?
A
Frozen all year at the bottom, microbes cannot decompose the organic matter so ancient carbon is stored.
24
Q
explain the natural greenhouse effect
A
When solar energy enters the atmosphere, clouds reflect about 31% of it back into space. The rest of it can pass through the atmospheric gasses due to the energys short wave length. About 50% of the energy is absorbed by the surface. Some of this energy is reflected back ooutwards, hhowever is now a longer wavelength in the form of infrared radiation. This means that it struggles to move through the greenhouse gasses, and is absorbed by them. These greenhouse gasses then remmit this energy in all directions, moving some into space and some back towards the surface.
25
What are the two main greenhouse gasses emmited by humans?
Carbon dioxide and methane
26
How much more potent is methane compared to CO2?
21x
27
What has been the % increase in methane compoisition in the atmosphere?
250%
28
What is the enhanced greenhouse efffect?
By burning fossil fuels, humans are releasing ancient stores of carbon and releasing it into the atmosphere, increasing the concentration of greenhouse gasses found in the atmosphere. This increases the amount of infrared radiation trapped in the atmosphere, exacerbating the warming effect of the greenhouse effect. In addition, increasing global temperatures increases rates of evaporation, which increases rates of condensation, leading to increased precipitation in some areas.
29
How does soil regulate the concentration of carbon within the atmosphere?
Soil health depends on the amount of organic carbon within the soil. This depends on the balance of inputs (animal and plant residue) and outputs (decomposition and erosion). 'active' carbon found in top soil is easily eroded, and thus reduces the ability of soil to act as a store for atmospheric carbon.
30
How much carbon is in the atmosphere (PPM) now compared to pre industrial revolution?
280-420 PPM
31
What are 4 impacts of the burning of fossil fuels on ecosystems?
* Increased carbonic acid in the ocean will increase rates of ocean acidification, thid threatens 80% of coral being bleached, which would destroy one of the most biodiverse ecosystems on earth
* 14-32% of macroscpoic animals may go extinct
* Plants, unable too move, will not be able to move polewards to escape increasing temperatures. This means they are more suceptable to pests
* The loss of polar ice causes devestating habitiat loss - Antartica is losing 150 billion tonnes of ice a year
32
What are 3 impacts of the burning of fossil fuels on the climate?
* weakening of the Thermohaline circulation in the ocean
* increased frequency and intensity of tropical storms
* Depressions will shift northwards
33
What are 4 impacts of the burning of fossil fuels on the hydrological cycle?
* Increased percipitation in high latitudes and decreased in lower latitudes
* Glaciers and permafrost may melt, reduicng the store of water in the cryosphere
* Mediteranian will see a decrease in 20-30% in water availability
* Increased surface evaporation
34
Whats the correlation between gdp per capita and energy consumed?
There is a strong correlation between the two
35
What country consumes the most energy per capita?
Qatar, which consumes 817 gigajoules per capita per year
36
What is the definition of a countries energy mix?
The combination of primary energy sources a country uses to meet energy demand. It can also cover the ratio of imported and domestically produced energy, aswell as the ratio of renewable to non renewable sources.
37
What is energy security?
A countries ability to access reliable and affordable sources of energy, which can match demand now and in the future
38
What is the significance of the level of energy imports and exports?
If a country is a net importer of energy, it lacks the resources to sustain its own consummption habits, meaning it is reliant on factors outside of their control. . A net importer, such as the UK or Germany, is said to be energy defficient, while a net exporter, such as Saudi Arabia, is said to be in energy surplus.
39
Before the Russo-Ukraine war, how reliant was Germany on Russian gas?
For instance, in 2021, Germany imported 60% of its gas from Russia - they lost this key source following the invasion of ukraine the following year, showing that foreign sources are often unreliable
40
What is the significance of the energy mix of renewables to non renewables?
The future of fossil fuel reserves remain uncertain, with many conventional sources expected to run out by 2050. In addition, changing attitutdes and actions of geographic players mean many want to reduce carbon emmissions. This means that countries will have to adapt and transition away from fossil fuels as to remain energy secure and gurantee future supply.
41
How much of the UKs energy is imported?
37%
42
How much of the Uks produced energy comes from renewables?
36.5%, with 30% coming from Wind and 5.5% coming from Solar
43
How much of UK energy production comes from fossil fuels?
29.5%, almost all of which is produced from gas.
44
How much of French electricity is derived from nuclear sources?
70%
45
What 6 factors affect the energy mix of a country?
* physical availability
* cost
* technology
* public perception
* level of economic development
* environmental priorities
46
How does physical availability affect energy mix?
If a country has large reserves of a particular resource, it is likely to specalise in that. Around 90% of Qatars energy comes from domestically produced gas. icelands physical geography lends itself geothermal energy - 30% of icelandic energy comes from it.
47
How does cost influence a countries energy mix?
When oil prices are high, alternative domestic sources of energy become more viable - Canadian Tar sands only become viable when the price of oil exceeds $40 dollars a barrel.
48
How do political considerations influence a countries energy mix?
Some populaitions may feel differently over the extent nucelear power should play a role in energy production. increasing tensions within Europe mean countries are wanting to become more ddomestically energy secure.
49
How do enviromental priorities influence energy mix?
The perception regarding the threat that climate change holds will impact energy choices at a micro and macro scale. Politicians will feel less inclined to act when a significant proportion of the electorate doubt the significance of anthroprogenic climate change. In the USA, 83% of energy consumption is derived from fossil fuels.
50
What are the 4 main players regarding energy
TNCs, OPEC, government, consumers
51
What role do TNCs have regarding energy? Whats the largest
TNCs are responsible for the distribution, explotation and discovery of new sources of fossil fuels. Sometimes they work in tandum (or are owned) by national governments. Saudi Aramco is the largest in the world.
52
What is OPEC?
The organisation of petroleum exporing countries, which is a cartel of 12 countries of whom account for around 80% of global oil reserves. They collude to restrict supply as a means of increasing price as demand is inelastic. They have significant influence over the global oil market.
53
How do governments influence energy?
Governments can regulate to affect the conditions in which companies can operate in. They set enviromental prioties as well as owning parts of companies (EDF in france)
54
How do conusmers influence energy?
Consumers create the demand which sends signals to firms.
55
Why is there a mismatch between the locations of traditional fossil fuels and demand?
Many industrialised nations, especially in Western Europe, are fairly small and so have thus already depleted most of their traditional fossil fuels, so need to import to stosfy their western consumer based life styles. Underlying geography also makes a significant impact - China does not have large oil reserves, so is the worlds largest importer.
56
What is an energy pathway?
The flow of energy from producer to consumer.
57
How does economic developent influence a countries energy mix?
fossil fuels are currently coupled with economic growth - they are cheaper upfront and are more energy dense (can be more than 10,000w/m squared, compared to wind at 1.8). Renewables require significant investment which may simply be unaffordable for developing countries, whose governments have to prioitise short term objectives like improving living standards through economic growth, rather than long term enviromental sustainability.
58
What is an example of an energy pathway?
The 4188km East Siberia Pacific Ocean pipeline transports crude oil from Russia to East Asia.
The Yamal-Europe pipeline, transfering oil from russia through belarus, poland to germany
59
What is a transit state?
A country which energy travles through on its way from a producer to consumer.
60
Why are energy pathways prone to disruption?
* Piracy, eg in Somalia. 340 martime attacks in 2023
* Geopolitical tensions, ie Russia and Europe over ukrainian conflict
* chokepoints becoming obstructed (largest chokepoint is the strait of Hormuz, 20% of oil flows pass through here)
61
Assess the success of Germany in terms of energy security?
* Mismatch of domestic energy supply and demand
* domestic stores of energy depleted historically so reliant on exports - vulnerable to geopolitical tensions
* In 2021, Germany imported 60% of natural gas from Russia - following the Russian invasion of ukkraine they had to rapidly diversify
* However, economicac strength and development means that they could look for alternitives and diversify
* 36.6 billion euros invested in renewables in 2023
62
Assess the USAs energy security
* Very balanced energy mix
* Net exporter and can rely on domestic stores - geologically diverse
* domestically produces 84% of its consummed energy
* However, less than 9% comes from renewable sources - is this sustainable in the long run when fossil fuel sources begin to deplete? Prehaps fracking is an alternative.
63
What are the three main developments in unconventional fossil fuels?
Tar sands in Canada
Deep oil in Brazil
Fracking in the USA
64
What are the Canadian Tar Sands?
A mixture of sand and bitumine which is extracted from open cast mining. Canada has 73% of global stocks
65
What are the benefits of the Canadian Tar Sands?
* Provides significant energy security to Canada and sheilds them from volatile price rises
* Provides some employment and tax revenue to the local government and people
* by 2030 could provide 16% of North Americas oil needs
66
Downsides of the tar sands
* Incredibily energy intensive - 3x more so than conventional crude
* only economically viable when the price of oil goes above $40 a barrel
* Revenue generated has not trickled down to the local community, where social and economic deprivation is amongst the highest in Canada
* Extreme enviromental degredation (said to be the worst industrial scheme in history) wreacks havoc on boreal forrests
* by providing a new source of fossil fuels, it could be said it delays the transition to renewable energy which is required for maintaining balance within the carbon cycle
67
What is fracking?
The use of high pressure water, sand and chemicals into shale to crack it and release oil or natural gas
68
Benefits of fracking for the US?
* Has substantially increased energy security local mulitplier effects (jobs, infrastructure)
* Has increased the USA's domestic energy production, (USA produces 84% of its own energy, net exporter) so increases energy security.
69
Negatives of fracking for the US
* A 2022 report suggests that proposed fracking projects could release 140 billion metric tons of carbon into the atmosphere
* incredibly water intensive(southern USA already experincing droughts
70
Changing UK energy mix - how much came from renewables?
36.5%.
71
How much of the UKs electricity could Hinkely point c contribute?
6%
72
What are the benefits of renewables?
* Nuclear energy is very energy dense - 1000 w/m2
* All are carbon neutral in terms of production, so can rebalance the carbon cycle
* They can improve domestic energy supply, and through diversifying energy mix can improve energy security
Local projects can create jobs - 25,000 in Hinkely point C
* In the long term, this is the only option as fossil fuels will run out at some point
* The global drive to reduce carbon dioxide emissions must involve increasing reliance on alternative sources of 'clean' energy, so decoupling economic growth from dependence on fossil fuels.
73
Negatives of renewables
* low power densities - wind has 1.8 watts per meter squared, compared to fossil fuels which can have up to 10,000
* Not all energy sources are reliable - solar and wind are weather dependent, thus may hinder energy security
* Questions over the storing of nuclear waste - byproducts of the reaction remain radioactive for 1000s of years.
* Rational or not, there remains significant public scepticism over the saftey of nuclear reactors
* Until future developments in technology, renewables are not a viable option to lesser developed countrys - they are too expensive and require extensive infrastructure investment. Some developing countries would argue that they have a right to pollute and industrialise as western countries did
74
Evaluation of the importance of transitioning towards renewables
While expensive currently, and it is not feasble to completely cut out fossil fuels from our ecnonomy and lifestyles, in the long run, we cannot continue to exploit our planets resources at the expense of ecosystems and the carbon cycle. A transition towards renewables is the only viable option, as adaptation stratergies alone cannot facilitate the continuation of the current rate of fossil fuel burning.
75
Biofuel in Brazil - positives
Can provide inward investment, increase energy security.
Renewable resource and releases less emmissions than fossil fuels - **in theory** carbon nuetral
76
Negatives of biofuels in Brazil
* takes land away from food production
* deforestation often occures to grow the sugarcane used in the process, so a carbon sink is destroyed and carbon emmisions are 35-60% higher than the savings made using biofuels
77
How much of the world was forest in 1700 compared to now?
52% - 31%
78
rIver toncantis increase in discharge?
river Tocantis had a 25% increase in river discharge from 1960 to 1977, conincident with deforestation
79
impacts of deforestation on the water cycle, soil health, biosphere and carbon cycle?
(for carbon cycle) trees sequester carbon in photosynthesis to make organic molecules like glucose - when trees are cut down they can decomposeor burn, which releases this sequested carbon back into the atmosphere, reducing the size of its store
80
Problems of losing grassland?
81
What is ocean acidification?
Carbon in the atmosphere is absored by the oceans - 30% of all CO2 released since 1800 has been absored by the oceans. as this happens, ocean pH is reduced as the quantity of carbonic acid increases while carbonate ions reduce.
82
What are the consquences of ocean acidification?
Corals cannot absorb the calcium carbonate they need to maintain their skeletons, so they begin to disolve - this risks crossing a critical threshold
* corals home more than 25% of all ocean life
* reduced barriers to wave energy and thus increased coastal erosion
* fishing opportunities reduce
* tourism reduces
83
How does climate change increase drought risk in certain areas?
As ocean currents and weather systems change, climatic belts shift. This causes an increase in rainfall in some areas while decreasing rainfall in others.
84
How severe was the 2023 Amazon drought?
Most severe in 45 years
85
What are the implications for the forests?
Trees stop growing and die - shutting down function of carbon sink as carbon dioxide is no longer sequestered - increasing global carbon dioxide concentrations - if drought is severe wild fires can occure - ompletely reversing carbon sink into a source of carbon dioxide
86
What are the implications of climate change for the carbon cycle?
Elevated atmospheric CO₂ → ocean acidification via carbonic acid formation → disruption of marine carbonate chemistry → decline in calcifying organisms → altered marine food webs and carbon sequestration
Warming temperatures → thawing permafrost → microbial decomposition of organic carbon → release of CO₂ and CH₄ → amplified greenhouse effect
Climate change and land use shifts → altered vegetation distribution and NPP → changes in terrestrial carbon storage → increased wildfire frequency → episodic carbon release from biomass and soil
Ocean warming and acidification → stress on phytoplankton → reduced photosynthetic CO₂ uptake → weakened biological carbon pump → reduced oceanic carbon sequestration
Higher temperatures → increased evaporation from land and ocean surfaces → elevated atmospheric water vapor → intensified greenhouse effect → further warming
Increased atmospheric water vapor → more intense precipitation events → higher runoff and reduced infiltration → soil erosion and nutrient leaching → degraded freshwater systems
Warming climate → reduced snow accumulation and earlier melt → altered river discharge timing → mismatch with water demand for ecosystems and agriculture
Accelerated glacial and ice sheet melt → sea level rise → coastal aquifer salinization and inundation → displacement of populations and ecosystems
87
what are the implications of forest loss on human wellbeing?
* Loss of tribal culltures
* Rainforests are the originator of 25% of medicinal ingredients
* when they are replaced with palmoil, a monoculture is developed, which reduces biodiversity, which can reduce tourism and upset natural equilibriums
88
Impacts of climate change on the water cycle
Higher temperatures → increased evaporation from land and ocean surfaces → elevated atmospheric water vapor → intensified greenhouse effect → further warming
Increased atmospheric water vapor → more intense precipitation events → higher runoff and reduced infiltration → soil erosion and nutrient leaching → degraded freshwater systems
Warming climate → reduced snow accumulation and earlier melt → altered river discharge timing → mismatch with water demand for ecosystems and agriculture
Accelerated glacial and ice sheet melt → sea level rise → coastal aquifer salinization and inundation → displacement of populations and ecosystems
89
What is the kuznets curve?
A theory in which enviromental degredation is plotted against time, implying that the rate of enviromental dedgregation will increase rapidly whilst a country is developing, but at a certain point this reaches a peak as a country releases the impact it has on the enviroment, and persuing economic growth is no longer the blinding priority.
90
Example of a country trying to return forest back to health?
2011 indonesian forest moratoriam.
91
What are the impacts of oceanic changes due to climate change on human wellbeing?
Tourism inn areas like the maldives and sutrailia has badly been hit by the increase in coral bleeching
520 million of the poorest people globally depend on fishing for food - warm water kills cold water plankton which is the basse of any marine food chain, significantly disrupting availability of food.
92
How much arctic ice has melted (cryosphere)?
Arctic sea ice has shrunk significantly since satellite measurements began in the late 1970s, with the yearly minimum extent decreasing by about 40%
93
What physical factors make projections about climate change hard to predict?
Will oceans continue to act as a carbon sink?
Will forests increase due to warming temperatures near the poles, and increasing carbon dioxide concentrations lead to higher rates of photosynthesis (negative feedback loop)?
Or will the albedo affect - the melting of ice reducing rates of solar radiation reflection - mea future warming is exacerbated
94
What 3 human factors make projections about climate change hard to predict?
economic growth - growth in bric nations mean that industrialisation + domestic energy uses will increase as the middle class grows and fossil fuels are 'coupled' with economic growth. India has a growth rate of 8.2%. the significance of economic growth depends on the position of newley emerging economies on the kuznets curve
energy sources - increasing renewable sources in countries energy mix (UK is now 30% renewable) - can this reduce changes?
Population growth - expected to peak at 10.4 billion, energy demands will continue as this increases. However, this is just a prediciton
95
How does warming create feedback loops in the form of peatlands and perma frost?
When permafrost melts, ancient co2 stored in ice can be released (positive).
When temperatures rise, there is increased evaporation in peatland, meaning formally saturated soils are left exposed, meaning bacteria can now start decomposition, releasing carbon dioixde. (postive)
96
forest die back tipping point
if there is an increase in droughts, possibly caused by increase evt, and trees die back, there might be a point at which forests can no longer recycle their own water
97
thermohaline circulation tipping point
98
What are adaptation stratergies?
develop new ways of doing things at all scales to lessen the effects of the likely future impacts of climate change.
99
What are mitigation stratergies?
Atempting to rebalance the climate cycle to prevent, or to reduce, the nagative consequences of climate change.
100
What are the 5 main hazard adaptation stratergies?
water conservation and management
resilient agricultural systems,
land-use planning
flood-risk management
solar radiation management
101
How can water conservation and management help players adapt to climate change?
Eg smart irrigation in israel, NEWater in SIngapore. With increasing global temperatures, evaporation rates are increasing, reducing the reliability of traditional aquifers. Smart irrigation reduces the quantity of water demanded - between 40-70% - by the agricultural industry, which is responsible for the largest quantity of water consumption.
102
Evaluation of water management?
However, water conservation techniques can only make a minor difference on the local scale unless they are widely adopted. If players are a international scale do not change their behaviour, projects like this will hve a limited impact. However, by providing financial incentive/punishment (as is done in denmark and singapore), this can directly change peoples behaviors.
103
How can agricultural resiliance help people adapt to climate change?
genetic modifcation to create drought resistent crops - kenyan genetically modified maize. Help deal with the human impacts of changes in percipitation patterns, especially in developing countries.
104
How does solar radiation management work?
Through a variety of techniques, such as spraying salt water (which provides nucelei whichc clouds can condense around) or through spaced based reflectors. The aim is to increase the reflectivity of the earth to reduce the amount of solar radiation absorbed.
105
What are the advantages of solar radiation management?
* can immediately alleviate some of the human impacts on the atmosphere as it does not rely on populations changing their behavior (as there are disagreements in the westernworld over the severity of climate change)
* Can have a global impact
* Even if we stop all emmissions, it would take centuries for the carbon cycle to rebalnce - action must be taken now
106
What is a disadvantage of solar radiation management?
Potentially expensive
Possible uninended consequences
107
Ultimate pieces of evaluation for adaptation stratergies?
* It is not sustainable in the long run - it may be disastourous as it does not address the root cause of the issue, and thus if it provides moral justification for the continuation of our behavior then it will be a failure - we cannot continiue exploting our planets resources at the rate which we have been doing
* spatially, it may only benefit the local area it is being implemented - in addition, it usually only help humns rather than aiding the ecosystems which are affected
108
What are the 5 mitigation techniques?
carbon taxation
renewable switching
energy efficiency
afforestation
carbon capture and storage
109
How does carbon tax help mitigate climate change?
Makes emmiting carbon more expensive, therefore aiming to bring it into the market mechanism and internalisethe externality. - internalising somewhat the externality. Sweden has a carbon tax of around $130 dollars per ton of CO2.
110
How does energy efficiency help to mitigate climate change?
Reduces the amount of energy wasted by appliances, reducing the carbon footprint of our western consumerist lifestyles. Germany has been providing subsidies to manufactures to improve efficiency
111
How does afforestation help to mitigate climate change?
Afforestation increases the size of the biological carbon store, increasing photosynthesis and thus increasing carbon sequestration.. It helps to offset some of the damage caused by human activity. eg the 2 billion trees program in canada
112
How does switching to renewables help to mitigate climate change?
Reduces the quantity of greenhouse gasses being put into the atmoshpere, reducing the enhnced greenhouse effect, Costa rica produces 98% of its energy from renewable sources.
113
How does carbon capture and storage help mitigate climate change?
EG boundary dam in Canada. Directly reduces emmisions and levels of c02 in the atmosphere. However it is expensive (up to $250 per tonne of c02) and thus is not financially viable
114
Ultimate evaluation of mitigation stratergies?
* It requires global action, which is by no means guranteed as india and china are still developing and thus are ascending on the kuznets curve
* even if we drastically reduce emmisions, the carbon which has been released is already in the atmosphere..
115
Why is climate change uncertain due to negative feedback loop of vegitation?
Warmer temperatures will mean more plants can grow closer to the poles, which whilst growing will sequester carbon through photosynthesis, and thus reduce the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
