The EU

Question 1

What was the Treaty of Paris 1951-1952?

Answer 1

• est. ECSC, enabling common market in coal and steel; est High Authority in order supervise market, monitor compliance with competition rules, ensure price transparency.
• membership = 6 countries; France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg.
• economic unity; limited - only 6 countries.

Question 2

What was the Treaty of Rome 1957-8?

Answer 2

• est EEC/created wider common market; laid foundations for ever close union/greatly expanded scope of institution into areas such as agriculture and common tariffs policy; same membership as ECSC.

Question 3

What was the first round of Enlargement 1973?

Answer 3

• first significant expansion in EEC membership; Denmark, Ireland, UK joined EEC; Greece (1981), Spain and Portugal (1986).

Question 4

What was the Single European Act 1985 (effective from 1987)?

Answer 4

• single European market created; qualified majority voting (QMV) rather than unanimity adopted for votes on legislation to do with single market.

Question 5

What was the Schengen Agreement (1985)?

Answer 5

• removed internal border controls, so effectively created single travel area within EEC/EU; UK and Ireland secured opt out from agreement.

Question 6

What was the Maastricht Treaty (1992)?

Answer 6

• created EU; est timetable for economic/monetary union; increased cooperation between member states in foreign/security policy.

Question 7

What was the second round of Enlargement (1995)?

Answer 7

• more countries join; Austria, Finland, Sweden; membership - 15.

Question 8

What was the Amsterdam Treaty (1997, implemented in 1999)?

Answer 8

• extended role of EU into further area eg immigration and security.
• amended parts of Treaty of Rome - included updated integration clause.

Question 9

When was the Eurozone created and what is it?

Answer 9

1999
- eleven countries abolished national currencies/adopted euro; marked another significant stage in economic integration.
- monetary policy for those states eg setting interest rates in hand of European Central Bank, not national govs.
- 4 countries didn’t join including UK; since 1999, 8 more countries have adopted euro.

Question 10

What was the Nice Treaty (2001, implemented in 2003)?

Answer 10

• created European security and defence policy.

Question 11

What was the third round of enlargement (2004)?

Answer 11

• largest single influx of new members; mainly eastern European countries that gained independence after end of Cold War/collapse of Iron Curtain.
• Cyprus, Czechia, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia; joined by Bulgaria and Romania in 2007; Croatia in 2013.

Question 12

What was the Lisbon Treaty (2007, implemented in 2009)?

Answer 12

• reformed EU institutions; QMV extended to over 45 area in the Council of Ministers; created important posts of President of the European Council and High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy.

Question 13

What was the UK referendum (2016, implemented 2020)?

Answer 13

• by margin of 52%-48%, UK voted to leave the EU; first member state to leave after its gov had negotiated membership.

Question 14

What are the aims of the EU?

Answer 14

• foster close economic ties in belief that countries that trade together become economically interdependent, making peace more likely.
• single market - trade cooperation; remove tariffs, quotas, taxes on trade; free movement of goods, services, capital, people.
• economic union - built around single market/monetary union; adopting single currency/handing over regulation to European Central Bank.
• sovereignty of member states; practice of unanimous voting.
• four freedoms (movement of goods, services, capital, people).
• social policy; Social Chapter introduced protections for workers/expanded EU regional policy.

Question 15

Arguments that the EU has fully achieved its aims

Answer 15

• Peace and stability; healed wounds from two world wars/transition to peace in Eastern Europe with creation of new democratic states; lots of infrastructure/support into these countries being democratic.
• Social policy - Treaty of Rome included commitment to free movement of people/principle of equal pay; to be apart of the single market, a county has to commit to democracy/human rights; European Pillar of Social Rights (2017) - more effective rights in: equal opportunities/access to labour market, fair working conditions, social protection/inclusion.
• Economic unity; no. of states adopting single currency/regulation over to European Central Bank (expanded to 20 states); single market - trade cooperation; fuelled economic growth, 450m consumers.

Question 16

Arguments that the EU hasn’t fully achieved aims

Answer 16

• Peace and stability; security of Europe has been enhanced through separate agreements independent form EU eg Interpol/NATO; EU cannot claim full responsibility; difficulties with Russia and Ukraine demonstrate that peace is limited, esp when EU hasn’t taken much action against Russia.
• Social policy - Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) is area where sovereignty hasn’t been pooled; free movement of people became mainstream political issue in UK; Germany very willing to accept Syrian migrants, showing differing views/outlooks and potential for disagreement; Tories see area as one that should be left to individual members.
• Economic unity - countries may become too dependent on EU; crises in one country can pull down currency eg Greece; unable to pay debts -> huge financial bailout; weakened case to join euro.

Question 17

Key institutions - the European Commission

Answer 17

• location - Brussels
• membership/appointment process - one commissioner from each EU state; President nominated by European Council/must be approved by EP.
• function/powers - civil service/administrative branch of EU; plays key role in devising policy via directives; only body that can propose laws; manages policies/allocates funding.
• June 2020 - announced 9% reduction in funding for Common Agricultural Policy.

Question 18

Key institutions - Council of the EU

Answer 18

• location - Brussels
• membership/appointment process - gov ministers from each EU country, according to policy area being discussed; membership decided by national government.
• main decision making body; has legislative powers/coordinates economic policy; most decisions agreed using QMV, but in foreign policy/taxation, unanimity required.
• negotiates trade deals with non-EU states such as that in 2019 with Japan.

Question 19

Key institutions - European Council

Answer 19

• Brussels, except in April, June, October when in Luxembourg.
• Quarterly summit meetings of leaders of all member states; choses president to serve 5 year term.
• primarily agenda setting/defining overall direction/priorities; strategic body.
• oversaw Brexit negotiations with UK, laying down EU’s terms.

Question 20

Key institutions - European Central Bank

Answer 20

• Frankfurt
• main decision making body is the Governing Council, consisting of the six members of the Executive Board plus governors of central banks of the 20 euro area countries; has P/VP.
• manages euro/frames/implements monetary policy; aims to keep prices stable, supporting economic growth/job creation.
• takes decisions in monetary policy every six weeks; determines what should be done to keep inflation at 2% target.

Question 21

Key institutions - European Court of Justice

Answer 21

• Luxembourg
• divided into two courts; each court - judge appointed for renewable 6 year term by national govs; each court - judges select president who serves renewable term of 3 years.
• to uphold EU laws/ensure implementation fair/uniform; source of legal authority; decisions cannot be overruled by another body, or national govs.
• much of its work concerns trade/copyright; doesn’t always back European Commission eg 2020 - General Court overruled Commission’s decision to block merger of two UK mobile telecoms companies, o2 and Three.

Question 22

Key institutions - European Parliament

Answer 22

• Strasbourg, some meetings in Luxembourg/Brussels.
• Post-Brexit, contains 705 members directly elected my member states; number of MEPs determined by size.
• approves budget; amends/vetoes EU legislation as proposed by Council of EU and drafted by Commission; cannot propose legislation.
• 2019 - approved new EU copyright law; required social media platforms such as YouTube, Facebook, Twitter to take more responsibility.

Question 23

How has the EU impacted the UK in terms of policy?

Answer 23

• Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and Common Fisheries Policy; most dramatically impacted.
• financial support for farmers; UK gets less from CAP than contributes; encourages practices that damage environment, benefits landowners, increase price of food produce, stops farms from developing world competing.
• equal access to UK wages for EU fishing fleets; large size of UK fishing zone; blamed for decline in UK fishing industry.
• move to single market -> 80% of all regulation on production, sale, distribution originated in EU.

Question 24

How has the EU not impacted the UK in terms of policy?

Answer 24

• many areas remained unaffected eg taxation and most areas of public expenditure.
• education, healthcare, welfare policies.
• attempts to develop common foreign/defence policy- largely unsuccessful; UK remained sceptical due to NATO/relationship with USA.
• UK will take control of main policy areas; new legislation; Internal Market Bill needed to protect seamless internal trade in UK.

Question 25

How has the EU impacted the UK in terms of political parties?

Answer 25

• two main have been split
• divisions within Labour Party led to Wilson calling 1973 referendum on continued membership; 1/3 campaigning for leaving; supported withdrawal in 80s; more positive view in 1997, but split in 2016.
• euroscepticism grew within Cons from late 80s, leading to divisions that threatens survival of Major gov; Cameron resigned after referendum; splits undermined May leadership.
• UKIP won 12 seats in EP elections of 2004; 13 in 2009, 27 seats in 2014 (largest); Brexit Party created in 2019/won most votes/seats.

Question 26

How has the EU not impacted the UK in terms of political parties?

Answer 26

• since 2019 election, leaders/policies of all main parties lined up behind fact that UK will leave; no case for second referendum.
• both UKIP/Brexit Party have never broken through in Westminster.

Question 27

How has the EU impacted the UK in terms of public opinion?

Answer 27

• referendum result was a hardening of eurosceptic opinion.
• EU became more high priority; after 2010, partially as result of debt crisis in Eurozone, slow economic recovery, migrant crisis.
• since referendum, attitudes have impacted on public opinion/voting behaviour in 2017/2019 GEs as well as 2019 European Parliamentary elections; opposition to Brexit in Scotland -> increased public support for independence; opposition to Withdrawal Agreement in NI -> opens up possibility of reunification

Question 28

How has the EU not impacted the UK in terms of public opinion?

Answer 28

• eurosceptism remained mainstay of public opinion over lifetime of UK’s membership; opinion surveys consistently showed interest/support had been lower in UK eg 2014 Eurobarometer opinion poll (conducted by Commission) - only 44% of UK citizens optimistic about future.
• low level of voter turnout in elections to EP.
• major political parties who tried to align themselves with public opinion failed to profit; 1983 Labour/2001 Tory - both tried to turn public opinion on EU - lost because not a priority.

Question 29

How has the EU impacted the UK in terms of sovereignty/constitution?

Answer 29

• European Communities Act 1972 - European laws take precedence over UK law.
• Factortame Case 1991 - ECJ overturned sections of Merchant Shipping Act 1988, which aimed to prevent boats from other member states from fishing in UK waters; impairing PS.
• intro of QMV/transfer of more areas of legislative competency undermined PS.
• EU has exclusive competency on agricultural, fisheries, transport policy; rules governing 4 freedoms.
• multiple areas have moved to QMV; UK lost national veto; erosion of sovereignty.

Question 30

How has the EU not impacted the UK in terms of sovereignty/constitution?

Answer 30

• PS not infringed because Parliament cannot bind successor/could repeal ECA 1972 at any time.
• 2018 - passed EU Withdrawal Act; end of transition period 1/1/2021 - no longer has primacy over UK law; withdrawal act copied all existing EU law into UK law; retained EU law subject to amendment, repeal, improvement.
• all treaties that move areas of competency to EU/areas to QMV had to be signed by all states; democratically elected gov chose to.
• UK able to preserve sovereignty by opting out of euro, Schengen, Social Chapter.
• UK always maintained red lines over powers it wouldn’t hand over.
• upon leaving, all areas of competency returned; creates constitutional problem of whether powers should be passed back to devolved institutions/Westminster.

Question 31

How has Brexit impacted EU influence?

Answer 31

• limits in PS removed by repeal of ECA 1972.
• created gridlock in procedure; 2019 saw chamber seize control of timetable.
• lengthy process - Retained EU Law (Revocation and Reform) Bill; from 2024, assimilated law no longer supreme, but there are still some that are; any required by exit treaty.