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O & E > The Plant Kingdom > Flashcards

The Plant Kingdom Flashcards

1
Q

What are the vascular plants (without seeds) commonly known as what are 4 examples?

A

TRACHEOPHYTES

  • club-mosses
  • whisk ferns
  • horsetails
  • ferns
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2
Q

What are Vascualr plants with seeds commonly known as?

A
  • Spermatophytes
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3
Q

Gymnosperms are examples of Spermatophytes what are 3 examples?

A
  • Cycads
  • Ginko
  • Conifers
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4
Q

What are angiosperms a division of and what is special about them?

A

Spermatophytes
> they are however flowing plants
- Division = Anthophyta

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5
Q

What are the 2 classes of flowing plants?

A
  • Dicotyledones

- Monocotoyledones

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6
Q

What does it mean if land plants are ‘monophyletic’ ?

A
  • the all descend from a common ancestor
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7
Q

What is meant by the term embryophytes?

A
  • Development from an embryo protected by tissues of the parent plant.
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8
Q

What are the features common to land plants and green algae from which they derived?

A
  • Chlorophyll a and b
  • Starch as storage product
  • Cellulose in cell wall
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9
Q

What is the name given to concurring cells to which all Vascualr plants contain?

A
  • Tracheids
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10
Q

What are the characteristics of land plants?

A
  • the cuticle = waxy covering that retards water loss
  • Stomata = openings in stems and leaves; regulates gas exchange
  • Gametangia = enclosing gametes
  • Embryos = in a protective structure
  • Pigments = that protect against UV radiation
  • Spore walls containing sporopollen- protects from desiccation and decay.
  • Mutulistic relationship with fungi that promote nutrient uptake from the soil.
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11
Q

What is the alternation of generation?

A
  • Plant possess 2 stages of its life cycle.
  • it alternates between a multicellular diploid stage and multicellular haploid stage.
  • DIPLOID = sporophyte
  • the sporophyte produces a SPORANGIUM which contains the diploid spore mother cells that will undergo meiosis to form haploid spores.
  • these spores will grow mitotically to produce the gametophyte the ‘gamete producing plant’.
  • The gametophyte produces male reproductive structures called antheridia (sperm producing) and archegonia (produce eggs).
  • When a sperm fertilises an egg inside the archegonium a diploid zygote is formed.
  • The zygote divides by mitosis and eventually develops into a mature sporophyte.
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12
Q

What is the main stage in the Bryophyte alternation of generation?

A
  • Gametophyte generation.

- the haploid gametophyte produces haploid gametes in multicellular Gametangia.

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13
Q

What is required for the sperm to swim to the archegonium to meet the eggs?

A
  • Water is required.
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14
Q

Once the sporophyte develops what does it require?

A
  • it is dependent still on the parent gametophyte.
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15
Q

How do mature sporophytes produce haploid spores?

A
  • meiosis in sporangia.

- When spore germinates, it develops into another gametophyte. They are also seedless.

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16
Q

What are liverworts?

A
  • the most primitive living terrestrial plants an are confined to per inanely damp habitats- shady banks, rotting tree stumps and wet rocks.
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17
Q

What is the alternation of generations in mosses?

A
  • Most familiar form is the haploid leafy gametophyte
    1. Male gametophyte produce sperm by mitosis within antheridia.
    2. Females produce haploid eggs by mitosis within the archegonia.
    3. Sexual reproduction requires water.
    4. Once in vicinity of and egg a sperm swims to the egg and fertilises it by fusing with it. The fusion produces a diploid zygote- the first cell of the sporophyte generation.
    5. Zygote divides my mitosis and grows into a multicellular sporophyte. DUring its lifecycle the sporophyte remains attached to the gametophyte as it is dependant on it for water and nutrients.
    6. Eventually surrounding gametophyte tissue cracks in the middle forming a hoodlike tip called the calyptra protecting the growin sporophyte.
    7. Underneath the calyptra grows a sporangium filled with thousand of spores.
    8. The spores are haploid and produced by the sporophyte undergoing meiosis
    9. When the top of the sporangium is shed teeth like structures hold the spores in, when open release them.
    10. A spore landing on moist ground will germinate producing a filamentous structure called the protons a witch gives rise to buds, which in turn develop into the next haploid gametophyte generation.
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18
Q

What are club-mosses?

A
  • they are in fact note mosses??? Stupid i know
  • Small leaves
  • true roots
  • spores produced by meiosis at the base of the specialised leaves, often aggregated at shoot tips.
  • Sporophytes often aggregate at shoot tips into cones (stobilli) without chlorophyll.
  • Both homosporous and heterosporus species
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19
Q

What are wise ferns/

A
  • considered to be highly specialised that evolved fairly recently from anatomically more complex ancestors by loss or reduction of megaphylls and true roots.
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20
Q

What is special about horsetails?

A
  • have true roots that branch irregualtory, bear simple leaves that form circles around the stem and exhibit basal growth.
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21
Q

What is the dominant stage of the lifecycle in ferns?

A
  • diploid sporophyte stage.
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22
Q

where are the sporongia located on spores?

A
  • underside of fronds.
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23
Q

What is the lifecycle of a fern?

A
  • Spore germinates and forms a heart-shaped gametophyte, bearing antheridia or archegonia on its underside
  • Stimulated by water, the antheridia release sperm that swim to. Nearby archegonium and fertilise an egg.
  • the resulting diploid embryo forms roots and fronds and grows into the familiar sporophyte life stage.
  • sporophyte contains many spore producing sponginum which produces spores by meiosis.
  • when released and begins germinating the spore has smaller structures at the bottom known as the rhizoids.
  • the germinating spore becomes the mature gametohyte
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24
Q

How are sporophytes varied in ferns?

A
  • Epiphytic
  • climbing
  • aquatic
    And adapted to prolonged seasonal drought.
  • Tree ferns have a ‘trunk’ made up of dead leaf bases
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25
Q

How are the sporangium ripped open?

A
  • Annulus cells loose water by evaporation, and shrinkage of their thin outer walls creates tension
  • Vapourisation of the remaining water in the cells releases the tension so the sporangium snaps shut catapulting out the spores.
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26
Q

what is the function of the rhizoids?

A
  • produced by the germinating spore for anchorage.
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27
Q

What is the dominant phase in seed plants (Spermatophytes)?

A
  • Sporophyte is the dominant multicellular phase and the gametophytes are both reduced in size and different in morphology.
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28
Q

What are the features of the seed plants life cycle?

A

> > they act to protect the gametes and embryos

  • gametophyte generation is reduced, with the haploid gametophyte attached to and nutriationally dependant on the diploid sporophyte.
  • Independance form water allowed seed plants to spread over the terrestrial environment.
  • Seed plants are heterosporus, producing 2 spores: one male gametophyte and one female.
  • Seporate mega sporongia and microsporangia are formed on structures that are goruped on short axes such as the cones of conifers and the flowers of angiosperms.
  • in seed plants the megaspores are not shed.
  • they develop into female gametophytes within the megasporangia.
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29
Q

What are the male gametophytes in gymnosperms called, how are they formed?

A
  • Pollen grains and are formed by the division of micro spores produced meiotic ally within the microsporangia.
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30
Q

How are pollen grains protected from dehydration and chemical damage?

A
  • By sporopollen in in their cell walls.

- helps to preserve them from distribution by wind, insects and other animals.

31
Q

How does a pollen grins develop further once it reaches the surface of a sporophyte?

A
  • a slender pollen tube is priduced that reaches the female gametophyte, two sperm are released and fertilisation occurs.
  • The resulting diploid zygote divides repeatedly until an embryonic stage is released at which point growth is temparily halted.
  • the end point at this stage is a multicellular seed.
32
Q

What change in anatomy enabled seed plants to be highly competitive?

A
  • Most ancient plants produced wood- allowing them to grow higher so best adapted to win comp for light.
33
Q

Why are the gymnosperms referred to as having ‘naked seeds’?

A
  • Dervided from the fact that their ovules and seeds are not protected by ovary or fruit tissue.
34
Q

What are cycads?

A
  • the most ancient living seed plants
  • ‘living fossils’
  • leathery, fern like leaves
  • slow growing
  • Dioecious
  • male gametes in pollen grains
  • female gametes are in ovules that remain attached to plants and develop into seeds after fertilisation
35
Q

What are megasporangia?

A
  • produce megaspores that give rise to female gametophytes
36
Q

What are microsporangia?

A
  • produce micros pores that give rise to male gametophytes.
37
Q

What do spores germinate into?

A
  • a long-lived separate free-living pro thallus.
38
Q

What are ovules in considers ad flowering plants?

A
  • they are megaspores that remain attached to the sporophyte that produced them and are fertilised in situ by micro spores (pollen grains). - no free living haploid gametophyte pro thallus.
39
Q

what do cones in conifers contain?

A
  • the reproductive structures of conifers.
40
Q

What are female cones called?

A
  • Megastrobili - they are seed bearing
41
Q

What are male cones called?

A
  • microstrobilli (pollen bearing)
42
Q

What does the ovule consist of?

A
  • integumentary, the megasporangia minute inside it and the tissue attaching it to the maternal sporophyte.
43
Q

What is the small opening in the integumentary at the tip of the ovule called?

A
  • the micropyle
44
Q

What happens after fertilisation?

A
  • the sporophyte embryo begins to develop within the ovule, while the integumentary put matures into the seed to protect the embryo.
45
Q

What does the conifer seed contain?

A
  • tissues from three generations:
  • the diploid embryo
  • the haploid gametophytic tissue which supplies nutrients for the developing embryo- and the seed coat, which developed from tissues of the sporophyte parent.
  • seed eventually falls to the ground and under suitable environmental conditions, germinates to form a new pine tree.
46
Q

How do angiosperms reproduce sexually?

A
  • in angiosperms the flower contains all the sex organs. Nearly all species reproduce sexually, many reproduce asexually as well.
  • sexual reproduction produces new gene combinations and diverse phenotypes.
  • asexual produces clones of genetically identical individuals.
47
Q

In a flower what are the 4 concentric groups of organs arising from modified leaves?

A
  • stamens
  • carpels
  • petals
  • sepals
48
Q

What does mono/di cot differ in terms of what multiples they are present in?

A
  • mono 3

- di 5

49
Q

What is the name given to the mega gametophytes and where d they develop?

A
  • Embryo sacs develop in the megasporangia
50
Q

What is the name given to the micro gametophytes where do they develop?

A
  • Called pollen grains

Develop in the microsporangia

51
Q

what is the alternation of generation of an angiosprem?

A
  1. Within the flowers male parts, called the anthers, are millions of diploid cells called microsporocytes. These divide by mitosis to produce haploid mircospores.
    - Meanwhile a similar process occurs within the flowers female parts whcih consist of one or more carpels. A single carpel consists of a stigma, style, ovary and ovule. A single diploid megaspores exists in the ovule and divides by meiosis to produce 4 haploid megaspores only one of whcih survives.
  2. By producing 2 different types of spores the angiosprems are said to be heterosporus.
  3. Each mircospore undergoes mitotic division and diffenrtiation to produce a pollen grain. A pollen grain is the haploid male gametophyte, called a microgametophyte.
  4. The surviving megaspore divides by mitosis to produce 7 haploid cells. One large, centrally located cell contains 2 nuclei (polar nuclei).
    - Another cell is the egg. The seven-called structure constitutes the female gametophyte, called the megagemtophyte.
  5. The pollen grain pollinates the female parts of the flower by landing on the stigma. Here, the pollen grain germinates and a pollen tube grows down the style until it reaches the female gametophyte.
  6. Two sperm from the pollen grain travel though the pollen tube and enter the female gametophyte. One fertilises the egg, forming a diploid zygote. The other fertilises two polar nuclei, forming a triploid cell.
    - the fertilisation of both the egg cell and the central cell is called double fertilisation a hallmark of the lifecycle of angiosperms.
  7. The zygote, whcih begins the next sporophyte generation develops into the embryo, while the triploid cell develops into the nutritive endosperm of the seed. The seed germinates, and when the sporophyte matures, the life cycle begins again.
52
Q

What makes the angiosperms so successful?

A
  • flowers
  • fruits
  • highly reduced female gametophytes
  • ovules and seeds encolsed in carpel
  • germination of pollen on stigma
  • double fertilisation
  • endosperm
  • phloem with companion cells
  • xylem with vessel elements and fibre cells.
53
Q

What is out-breeding and what does it do?

A
  • tends to maximise heterozygosity and maintain the pool of genetic variability in the population.
  • outbreeding populations maintain a large pool of genetic variability in the population, since the expression of recessive alleles is masked by their dominant allele at heterozygous loci.
54
Q

What is the name given to plants the bear both male and female flowers on an individual plant?

A
  • Monoecious
55
Q

What is the name given to plants that bear either male-only or female-Bly flowers on an individual plant?

A

Dioecious

56
Q

What does dioecy guarantee?

A
  • complete out crossing.
  • but only half the species population can produce seeds, whereas in hermaphrodites all individuals in the population can produce seeds.
57
Q

What is protandry?

A
  • Stamens release pollen before stigma becomes receptive.
  • a very common outbreeding mechanism in many species.
  • Many monoecious species are also Protandrous so the temporal separation of the sexes reinforces the spatial separation as an outbreeding mechanism.
58
Q

What is protogyny?

A

Stigmas become receptive before pollen is released.

- less common than protandry. But occurs in some grasses.

59
Q

What are zygote can lethal alleles?

A
  • An incompatibility system operates where self-incompatibility alleles (s-alleles) are lethal in the homozygous condition so self fertilised embryos die.
60
Q

WHat is the study of fungi called?

A
  • Mycology
61
Q

What is a special feature of the fungi kingdom?

A
  • organisms whose genetic material is contained inside a discrete nucleus.
62
Q

What synapomorphies distinguish fungi as a group among the opisthkonts?

A
  • Absorptive heterotrophs

- Chitin in cell walls

63
Q

How do fungi digest their food?

- what is this process called?

A
  • they digest food outside their bodies.
  • they secrete enzymes that break down large food molecules, then absorb the products via their plasma membrane.
  • process = heterotrophy
64
Q

What is a saprobe?

A
  • Absorb material from dead organic matter.
65
Q

What fine filament forms most fungi?

What is a multicellular fungi called?

A
  • formed from hyphae

- mycelium

66
Q

What is special about the hyphae?

A
  • can be produced very quickly and generates a very high surface area to volume ratio, perfect for efficient secretion of enzymes and absorption of nutrients.
67
Q

What is the specialised parasitic fungi called?

A
  • Haustoria.
68
Q

What are the features of Zygomycetes?

A
  • No septa in hyphae
  • Haploid nuclei in hyphae
  • asexual spores formed in large numbers on sporangia. Non-motile and wind dispersed.
  • Sexual reproduction: hyphae from different individuals fuse.
  • produces a very stress resistant ZYGOSPORE which divides by meiosis on germination
69
Q

Describe the lifecycle of ZYGOSPORE fungi.

A
  1. the fungus consists of a network of hyphae these penetrate the bread and absorb nutrients. During asexual reproduction, spore-filled sporangia develop at the tops of stalklike hyphae. The sporangia and hyphae are haploid (n). The sporangia break open, and their haploid spores disseminate.
  2. Spores travel by air to other locations. Spore germinates and sends an elongating hypha to absorb nutrients. As it develops, the new haploid fungus can produce more sporangia, initiating addition cycles of asexual reproduction.
  3. In addition to asexual reproduction the fungus may initiate sexual reproduction. Although Rhizopus does not have 2 distinct sexes it’s does have 2 distinct mating types ( + and -). They reproduce sexually when adjecent hyphae of the two types releases pheromones.
  4. The pheromones Trigger the hyphae to grow side branches. Note the Rhizopus generally lacks cross walls between its nuclei, and most nuclei share a common cytoplasm. As the side branches grow, nuclei stream in. A cross wall forms near the end of each branch isolating several haploid nuclei at the ends.
  5. The nuclei are now isolated in sexual structures called Gametangia. These Gametangia fuse, and the nuclei inside pair up. The pairs of nuclei eventually fuse as well. The entire multinucleate structure becomes a zygosporangium. The zygosporangium develops a thick tough wall and can remain dormant for months.
  6. The diploid nucleus with int the zygosporangium then undergoes meiosis and a sporangium sprouts. The sporungium contains the products of meiosis: haploid nuclei are incoperated into spores. When the sporungium opens these spores disperse and germinate to form the next generation of haploid hyphae.
70
Q

What are asmycetes?

A
  • septate hyphae with pores in septa
  • Haploid nuclei move freely though pores, so each hyphae functions as a single cell.
  • non-motile asexual spores are CONIDIOSPORES whcih are formed on the ends of phase. Wind or water is the dispersal mechanism.
71
Q

why are the Glomeromycota an important group of fungi?

A
  • they from mycorrhizal associations with plants, from which they derive glucose as their primary energy source.
  • Coenocytic hyphae that do not form mycelia.
  • None known to undergo sexual reproduction.
72
Q

What are the features of basidiomycete sexual reporduction?

A
  • sexual spores produced on surface of gills or pores under the cap.
  • complementary nuclei fuse in a dikaryotic cell - meiosis on special hyphal branches called basidia - 4 uninucleate haploid basidiospores form on their tips- they’re dispersed by the wind.
73
Q

What are the non-Vascular plants commonly known as and what are 3 examples?

A

BRYOPHYTES

  • Liverworts
  • Mosses
  • hornworts

O & E (5 decks)

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